See also: About.com
See also: CAMY
(Center' on Alcohol Marketing and Youth Study)
See also: CAR--Children
of Alcoholics
See also: CASA--Five
ways parents can reduce teen drug
use
See also: June
Russell's Health
See also: Prevention
See also: Reducing
Underage Drinking
See also: Teen
Brain and Alcohol
See also: Women
and Alcohol
See also: Your
Health
"The Surgeon General's call to action to
prevent and reduce underage drinking", U. S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2007. "Alcohol is the most widely used substance
of abuse among America's youth. A higher percentage of young people
between the ages of 12 and 20 use alcohol than use tobacco or illicit
drugs. The physical consequences of underage alcohol use range from
medical problems to death by alcohol poisoning, and alcohol plays a
significant role in risky sexual behavior, physical and sexual
assaults, various types of injuries, and suicide. Underage drinking
also creates secondhand effects for others, drinkers and nondrinkers
alike, including car crashes from drunk driving, that put ever child
at risk. Underage alcohol consumption is a major societal problem
with enormous health and safety consequences and sill demand the
Nation's attention and committed efforts to solve."
http://www.surgeongeneral.gov
Initiative on Underage Drinking
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/AboutNIAAA/NIAAASponsoredPrograms/underage.htm
The Cool Spot (for Middle Schoolers)
http://www.thecoolspot.gov/
"Underage drinking why do adolescents drink, what are the risks,
and how can underage drinking be prevented?," Alcohol Alert , 67,
January 2006. Alcohol is the drug of choice among youth. Many young
people are experiencing the consequences of drinking too much, at too
early an age. As a result, underage drinking is a leading public
health problem in this country.
http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA67/AA67.htm
Is your child at risk to use drugs? by Dr. Phillip
Palmgreen.
http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/tipsforparents/a/blsam030729.htm
Adults most common source of alcohol for teens, according to
poll of teens 13-18. The poll of teens, aged 13-18, found that
nearly half reported having obtained alcohol at some point. In all
age groups, girls nearly always ranked higher than boys in obtaining
alcohol. In the adult poll, about one out of four U.S. parents with
children, aged 12-20 (26 percent), agree that teens should be able to
drink at home with their parents present.
http://www.alcoholpolicymd.com/press_room/Press_releases/adults_give_youth_alcohol.htm
"Alcohol use and delinquent behaviors among youth", National
Survey on Drug Use and Health, Office of Applied Studies, Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), April 1,
2005. --In 2003, almost 8.6 million (34.3 percent) youths aged 12 to
17 had used alcohol in the past year
--An estimated 9 million (36.1 percent) youths aged 12 to 17 had
engaged in at least one delinquent behavior in the past year
--Youths aged 12 to 17 who reported heavy alcohol use in the past
month were the most likely to have participated in any delinquent
behavior.
http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k5/alcDelinquent/alcDelinquent.htm
"Alcohol's damaging effects on adolescent brain function",
ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2005) February. The
adolescent brain is designed to learn; yet the same plasticity that
facilitates neuromaturation also renders it particularly vulnerable
to the damaging effects of alcohol. Some of the findings presented
were:
-The neurochemical, cellular, synaptic, and structural organization
of the adolescent brain makes it more vulnerable than the adult brain
to disruption from activities such as binge drinking. Adolescent rats
that were exposed to binge drinking appear to have permanent damage
in their adult brains.
-Research has identified subtle but important brain changes occurring
among adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), resulting in a
decreased ability in problem solving, verbal and nonverbal retrieval,
visuospatial skills, and working memory.
-The association between antisocial behavior during adolescence and
alcoholism may be explained by abnormalities int he frontal limbic
system, which appears to cause "blunted emotional reactivity".
-Alcohol-induced memory impairments, such as "blackouts", are
particularly common among young drinkers and may be at least in part
due to disrupted neural plasticity in the hippocampus, which is
centrally involved in the formation of autobiographical memories.
- The symposium concluded that many serious adult mental disorders
have their onset during childhood, and are risk factors for heavy
alcohol involvement, especially attention deficit disorder,
schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and bipolar spectrum disorders. The
nature and extent of alcohol's effects on the neurodevelopmental and
clinical aspects of these disorders should be a priority.
American Association for the Advancement of Science, "Middle-schoolers and alcohol: tips for parents from The Science Inside Alcohol Project at AAAS" , Sept 5, 2008 Children who begin drinking while in middle school or earlier usually have a wide variety of problems that last well into their adulthood.. . Almost 20% of 14-year-olds say they have been drunk at least once, according to a U. S. Surgeon General report, and one-fourth of 8th graders have reported being drunk, according to the Monitoring the Future Survey. Another study, by RAND Health, found that three-quarters of 7th graders had used alcohol.
Five tips for Middle School Parents: Find teachable moments; Talk to your kids when everything is fine; Engage your kids in the science of alcohol, Be vigilant, and Learn to trust your child.
Arria, Amelia, M., et al. "High school drinking mediate the relationship between parental monitoring and college drinking: a longitudinal analysis", SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT, PREVENTION AND POLICY, March 7, 2008. 1,253 male and female students aged 17 to 19 attending a large mid-Atlantic university were studied at two time points. "First, data on high school parental monitoring and alcohol consumption were gathered via questionnaire during the summer prior to college entry. Second, during the firs year of college, pat-year alcohol consumption was measured via a personal interview. Multiple regression models tested the relationship between parental monitoring and the past year alcohol use (i.e., number of drinks per drinking day).
Conclusions: "While parental monitoring did not directly influence college alcohol consumption, evidence for mediation was observed whereby parental monitoring had an indirect influence on college drinking through reductions in high school drinking. Initiatives that promote effective parenting might be an important strategy to curb high-risk drinking among older adolescents. More research is needed to understand the nature and degree of parental-child communication that is necessary to extend the protective influence of parents into the college years.
Signals of Teen Substance Abuse Risk
The more sexually active friends a teen has and the more time a teen spends with a boyfriend or girlfriend, the greater the risk that teen will smoke, drink, get drunk or use illicit drugs, according to the NATIONAL SURVEY OF AMERICAN ATTITUDES ON SUBSTANCE ABUSE IX: TEEN DATING PRACTICES AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY.
The CASA survey found:
Compared to teens with no sexually active friends, teens who report
half or more of their friends are sexually active are more than six
and one-half times likelier to drink; 31 times likelier to get drunk;
22.5 times likelier to have tried marijuana; and more than five and
one-half times likelier to smoke.
Teens who spend 25 or more hours a week with a boyfriend/girlfriend are two and one-half times likelier to drink; five times likelier to get drunk; 4.5 times likelier to have tried marijuana; and more than 2.5 time likelier to smoke than teens who spend less than 10 hours a week with a boyfriend/girlfriend.
Girls with boyfriends two or more years older are more than twice as likely to drink; almost six times likelier to get drunk; six time likelier to have tried marijuana; and four and one-half times likelier to smoke than girls whose boyfriends are less than two years older or who do not have a boyfriend.
Sexual activities linked to substance abuse.
Teens, half or more of whose friends regularly view and download
Internet pornography, are more than three times likelier to smoke,
drink or use illegal drugs, compared to teens who have no friends who
engage in such behavior.
Forty-four percent of high school students thing that boys at
their school often and sometimes 'push girls to drink alcohol or take
drugs in order to get the girls to have sex or do other sexual
things."
http://alcoholism.about.com/od/tipsforparents/a/blcasa040821.htm
SAMHSA Reports
The report, Patterns of Alcohol Use Among Adolescents and
Associations with Emotional and Behavioral Problems, concludes
that there is a strong relationship between alcohol use among youth
and many emotional and behavioral problems, including fighting,
stealing, driving under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs,
skipping school, feeling depressed, and deliberately trying to hurt
or kill themselves. These findings are based on adolescent
self-reporting of behavioral/emotional problems that occurred the
past six months. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/TeenAlc/teenalc.pdf
"Quantity and frequency of alcohol use among underage drinkers"
National Survey on Drug Use and Health Report, March 321, 2008.
Results:
-Combined 2005 and 2006 data indicate that an annual average of 28.3
percent of persons aged 12 to 20 in the United states (and estimated
10.8 million persons annually) drank alcohol in the past month
-Past month alcohol users aged 12 to 20 drank on an average 5.9 days
in the past month and consumed an average of 4.9 drinks in the past
month
-Underaged drinker aged 12 to 20 consumed, on average, more drinks
per day on the days they drank in the past month than persons aged 21
or older 4.9 vs. 2.8 drinks)
Research shows that underage drinkers tend to consume more alcohol per occasion than those over the legal minimum drinking age of 21. Studies have also linked early drinking to heavy alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems in adulthood. For example, in 2006, 16.3 percent of adults aged 21 or older who had first used alcohol before the age of 15 met the criteria for alcohol dependence or abuse in the past year compared with 2.4 percent of adults who first used alcohol at age 21 or older. Results also shows that early initiation of alcohol use is associated with higher likelihood of involvement in violent behaviors, suicide attempts, unprotected sexual intercourse, and multiple sex partners. This report is available online as a PDF.
Underage alcohol use: findings from the 2002-2006 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health", June 2008. More than 40% of underage drinkers in the United States get their alcohol free from adults age 21 and a significant percentage of them get it from their own parents or guardians. According to a nationwide survey the the Substance Abuse and mental Health Services Administration(SAMHSA), more than 40% of the estimated 10.8 million underage drinkers in the past month got their alcohol free from adults. The study revealed that 6.4% of those drinkers, ages 12 to 20, were provided free alcohol by their own parents or guardians.
"In far too many instances, parents directly enable their children's underage drinking -- in essence, encouraging them to risk their health and well-being." said Acting Surgeon General Steve K. Galson, MD, MPH, in a new release' "Proper parental guidance alone may not be the complete solution to this devastating public health problem, but it is a critical part."
The SAMHSA survey asked young people, ages 12 to 20, about the nature and scope of their drinking behavior, and for the first time, asked about the social conditions under which they drink. The survey confirms an earlier study, which found that more than 1/3 of middle school students got their alcohol from their own parents or from a friend's parents or guardians.
According to the SAMHSA report these are some of the survey's
significant findings:
- More than half (53.9%) of all people ages 12 to 2o engaged in
underage drinking in their lifetime, ranging from 11% of 12-year-olds
to 85.5% of 20 year-olds.
- An average of 3.5 million people (9.4%), ages 12 to 20, meet the
diagnostic criteria for having an alcohol-use disorder each year.
- About one in five people in this age group (7.2 million people)
have engaged in binge drinking: consuming five or more drinks on at
least one occasion in the past month.
- The vast majority of current underage drinkers (80%) reported being
with two or more people the last time they drank. Those who were with
two or more people consumed an average of 4.9 drinks on that
occasion, compared with 3.1 drinks for those who were with another
person and 2.9 drinks for those who were alone. _ Among youths, ages
12 to 14, the rate of current drinking was higher for females (7.7%)
than males (6.3%) -- about equal for females and males among those
ages 15 to 17 (27.3%, respectively) and lower for females than males
among those ages 18 to 20 (47.9%) vs. 54.4 %).
- More than half (53.4%) of underage current alcohol users were at
someone else's home when they had their last drink, and 30.3% were in
their own home; 9.4% were at a restaurant, bar or club.
- Rate of binge drinking are significantly higher among young people
living with a parent who engaged in binge drinking within the past
year.
More than 5,000 death a year are attributed to underage drinking
in the United States. Parents and guardians of children ages 12 to 20
can have a great influence on their attitudes about drinking and
substance abuse in general. As this study shows, that influence can
be negative or positive.
Bingham, C. Raymond, Shope, Jean T.; "Adolescent developmental
antecedents of risky driving among young adults", JOURNAL OF STUDIES
ON ALCOHOL (2004), 65: 84-94. The risk of death due to motor vehicle
crash is highest from ages 16 to 35. Crash rates are associated with
driver's gender, age, inexperience, emotional states, thrill seeking,
personality factors and substance use. This study examined the
longitudinal patterns of adolescent psycho social behavior and
substance use of five risky drinking groups. Results: a low level of
parental monitoring, greater parental permissiveness, a weaker social
bound and high levels of and rapid increases in substance use
characterized the developmental trajectories of young adult risky
drivers. Conclusions: These developmental traits identify individuals
who are likely to endanger themselves and others through risky
driving and who should receive early interventions to reduce the
likelihood of subsequent risky driving.
Bonnie, Richard J.; O'Connell , Mary Ellen O'Connell, Editors "Reducing underage drinking: a collective responsibility," National Academies Press, c2003, p295. Alcohol use by young people is extremely dangerous - both to themselves and society at large. Underage alcohol use is associated with traffic fatalities, violence, unsafe sex, suicide, educational failure, and other problem behaviors that diminish the prospects of future success, as well as health risks &endash; and the earlier teens start drinking, the greater the danger. Despite these serious concerns, the media continues to make drinking look attractive to youth, and it remains possible and even easy for teenagers to get access to alcohol. http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309089352/html/
Why is this dangerous behavior so pervasive? What can be done to
prevent it? What will work and who is responsible for making sure it
happens? Reducing Underage Drinking addresses these questions and
proposes a new way to combat underage alcohol use. It explores the
ways in which may different individuals and groups contribute to the
problem and how they can be enlisted to prevent it. Reducing Underage
Drinking will serve as both a game plan and a call to arms for anyone
with an investment in youth health and safety.
Coffman, Donna, Palin, Lori,"Why do high school seniors
drink?",PREVENTION SCIENCE (December, 2007). 1,877 students (seniors
from the 2004 graduating class) whose data came from the national
Monitoring the Future survey conducted annually. The survey found
that three-quarter of high school seniors have already experimented
with alcohol. Researchers at Penn State found that their motivation
for drinking was a big factor in determining if they were high-risk
for developing drinking problems. The study found the following
trends: boys were more likely to be thrill seekers, a high-risk
group; girls were more likely to be experimenters, a low-risk group;
experimenters, boys and girls, were more likely to start drinking at
a later age; boys who reported drinking before 4 p.m., were eight
times more likely to belong to the highest risk group, those who
drink for multiple reasons; girls who drank before 4 p/m. were six
times more likely to drink for multiple reasons. The study frond that
for the graduating class of 2004, students who had multiple reasons
to drink, including reasons related to coping, were also more likely
to begin drinking at an earlier age, more likely be drunk in the past
year and more likely to drink before 4:00 p.m., compared to students
who drank to experiment with alcohol,, to experience the thrill of
drinking or just to relax.
Dick, Danielle M.; Pagan, Jason L.; Holiday, Candice, Viken,
Richard, Pulkkinen, Lea, Kaprio, Jaakko, Rose, Richard J.; "Gender
differences in friends' influences on adolescent drinking: a genetic
and epidemiological study", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH ( December,2007), Results: Friends' drinking, smoking, and
delinquency were more strongly related to alcohol use in adolescents
with opposite-sex friends, compared to adolescents with only same-sex
friends. Friends' alcohol use showed modest evidence of genetic
influence in girls, suggesting peer selection, however, there was no
evidence of genetic influence on friends' alcohol use in boys. The
correlation between adolescent and friend drinking was largely
attributable to shared environmental effects and genders.
Conclusions: Gender and gender of friends moderate the associations
between friends' behavior and adolescents' alcohol use, with evidence
that girls, and those with opposite sex friends may be more
susceptible to friends' influence. Genetically informative analyses
suggest that similarity in alcohol sue between adolescents and their
friends is mediated , at least partially, through environmental
pathways.
Donovan, John E., Zucker, Robert A., "Children's introduction to alcohol use : sips and tastes", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2008), Jan; 32 (1): 108-19. Sipping or tasting alcohol is one of the earliest alcohol use behaviors in which young children engage, yet there is relatively little research on this behavior. A sample of 452 children (238 girls) ages 8 or 10 and their families was drawn from Allegheny County PA using targeted-age directory sampling and random digit dialing procedures. Children were interviewed using computer-assisted interviews. Logistic regression analyses were used to examine the univariate and multivariate correlates of sipping/tasting. Results" 39% of the sample hand only sipped or tasted alcohol (35% or 8 year olds and 48% or 10 year olds), while 6% reported having had a drink of alcohol (5% and 7% respectively). African-American children were less likely than White children to be sippers. Neither gender or mother's education related to sipping status. Most sipping was done in family context. Sipping/tasting did not generally relate to variables reflecting psychosocial proneness for problem behavior. Instead, the variables most predictive of sipping/tasting were perceived parents' drinking status, perceived parents' approval for child sipping, mother's drinking frequency, and children's attitudes toward sipping/tasting alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: Young children's sipping/tasting of alcohol reflects parental modeling of alcohol use and increased opportunities to try alcohol in the home rather than deliberate family socialization of alcohol use, and appears not to be a precocious manifestation of a psychosocial proneness to engage in problem behavior.
Ellickson, Phyllis L., et. al. "Does solitary substance use increase adolescents' risk for poor psychosocial and behavioral outcomes" PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS, December, 2006. Teens who use alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana while they are alone are more likely to experience health and behavioral problems as young adults, even more so than their peers who also used the same substances, but did so in social settings. These conclusions came from a study of 6,000 eighth graders conducted by the RAND Corporation.
Solitary alcohol, cigarette and marijuana users are less likely to graduate from college, more likely to have substance use problems as young adults, and tend to report poorer physical health by age 23 than their peers who were social substance users, the report said.
"While substance use is a problem in itself, these findings suggest that risk among solitary users is especially high," said Joan Tucker, a RAND psychologist and lead author of the study. "Solitary use is a warning sign that youth will be less productive and have more problems as young adults -- more problems, even, than others who also used substances during childhood. The challenge is to identify these at-risk children and find out what type of assistance might benefit them."
The study found that solitary users had lower grades, spent less time spent on homework and less time devoted to school activities. However, solitary users spent significantly more time going to parties and dating than other substance-using youth.
"This dispels the notion that these solitary users are lonely, socially isolated teens," Tucker said in a news release.
The study also found:
* Solitary substance users typically felt that substance use has
positive effects on their behavior, allowing them to relax, have more
fun, and get away from their problems.
* They were less likely than social-only users to think substance use
is harmful -- that it impairs physical and cognitive functioning, or
factors into behavioral problems.
* Solitary users reported higher frequency and quantity of substance
use compared to social-only users.
* Solitary users in 8th grade reported using alcohol, cigarettes or
marijuana three to five days in the past month.
* On the days they used the substances, they smoked three to seven
cigarettes, had two to three alcoholic drinks, or smoked marijuana
three or more times.
* Social-only users in 8th grade reported using substances less than
one to two days in the past month.
* On the days they used the substances, they smoked one to two
cigarettes, had one drink, or smoked marijuana twice.
These findings come from a study of 6,000 adolescents from California and Oregon enrolled in a program to evaluate Project ALERT, a drug use prevention program developed by RAND for middle school children.
Ellickson, Phyllis L.; Tucker, Joan; Klein, David J.; "Ten year
prospective study of public health problems associated with early
drinking", PEDIATRICS (2003), 111 (5), 949-955. (longitudinal self
reported data) Results: Early drinkers and experimenters were more
likely than nondrinkers to report academic problems, substance use,
and delinquent behavior in both middle school and high school. By
young adulthood, early alcohol use was associated with employment
problems, other substance abuse, and criminal and violent behavior.
Conclusions: Early drinkers do not necessarily mature out of
problematic lifestyle as young adults, Interventions for these
high-risk youth should start early and address their other public
health problems, particularly their tendency to smoke and use other
illicit drugs.
"Drinking games", TEEN VOGUE (2003), October/November: 190-193.
"Binge drinking is seen as a perverse form of feminism, beating guys
at what used to be their own game. Now that girls expect to be
treated the same as boys, and have the same goals and career
aspirations, they expect to be able to drink the same way."
(Irrespective of the fact that females process alcohol differently
from males.) "A Duke University study on the consequences of alcohol
use on the brains of teenagers found that consuming even three drinks
in one sitting impairs thinking, learning, and short-term
memory."
"Fathers' aslcohol and substance use among adolescents", The NSDUH
Reort, June 18, 2009, 8p. Findings: Almost one in twelve (7.9
percent) fathers living with adolescents aged 12 to 17 had an alcohol
use disorder, while 68.1 percent used alcohol in the past year but
did not have and alcohol use disorder; 24.1 percent did not use
alcohol int eh past year. The rate of past year alcohol use among
adolescents was lower for those who lived with a father who did not
use alcohol int he past year than for those who lived with a father
who used alcohol but did not have an alcohol use disorder and for
those who lived with a father with an alcohol use disorder (21.1 vs.
33.2 and 38.8 percent, respectively). The percentage of adolescents
using illicit drugs in the past year increased with the level of
parental alcohol use. with illicit drugs in the past year increased
with the level of paternal alcohol use, with illicit drug use
reported by 14.0 percent of adolescents who lived with a father who
did not use alcohol in the past year, 18.4 percent of those who lived
with a father who used alcohol but did not have an alcohol use
disorder, and 24.2 percent of those who lived with a father with an
alcohol use disorder. http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k9/108/FatherAlcUse.htm
Foster, Susan, et al.; "Alcohol consumption and expenditures for
underage drinking and adult excessive drinking", JOURNAL OF THE
AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (2003), 289 (8):989-995.
The proportion of 12-20-year-olds who drink was estimated to be 50.0%
using data from the YRBS; the proportion of adults aged 21 or older
who drink was estimated to be 52.8% using data from the BRFSS. The
estimated total number of drinks consumed per month was 4.21 billion;
underage drinkers consumed 19.7% of this total. The amount of adult
drinking that was excessive (>2 drinks per day) was 30.4% Consumer
expenditure on alcohol in the United States in 1999 was $116.2
billion; of that $22.5 billion was attributed to underage drinking
and $34 billion was attributed to adult excessive drinking. The data
suggest that underage drinkers and adult excessive drinkers are
responsible for 50.1% of alcohol consumption and 48.9% of consumer
expenditure.
Hallfors, Denise D., Waller, Martha W.. Ford, Carol A., et. al.;
"Adolescent depression and suicide risk association with sex and drug
behavior", AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE (2004), 27 (3):
224-231. Teens engaging in risk behaviors re at increased odds for
depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts. Although causal
direction as not established, involvement in any sex or drug use is
cause for concern, and should be a clinical indication for mental
health screening for girls; both boys and girls should be screened if
engaging in any marijuana or illegal drug use.
Hearst, M. O; Fulkerson, JA; Maldonado-Molina, MM; Perry, CL;
Komro,KA; "Who needs liquor stores when parents will do? The
importance of social sources of alcohol among young urban teens",
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE (2007), 44(6): 471-6. "OBJECTIVES: Examine
sources of alcohol over time in a large, ethnically diverse
adolescent population from a poor, urban environment. METHODS:
Surveys were administered at four time points (6th-8th grades)
assessing demographic characteristics, past year alcohol use and
sources of alcohol to youth in Chicago, Illinois 2002-2005. Growth
curve analysis was used to examine alcohol access trends among all
alcohol using youth and consistent alcohol users. Interactions by
race and gender were tested. RESULTS: Social sources of alcohol were
the most prevalent source over time. Parents were the primary source
of alcohol, but their prominence significantly decreased over time.
Taking alcohol from home, and getting alcohol from other adults,
individuals under age 21, and commercial sources significantly
increased as sources of alcohol over time. Males were significantly
more likely than females to get alcohol from commercial sources and
friends' parents. CONCLUSIONS: Greater attention for reducing social
access to alcohol, particularly among parents, is needed for alcohol
prevention efforts prior to and during middle school."
Komro, K,A,; Perry, C. L.; Veblen-Mortenson, S.; Farbakhsk, K.; Toomey, T. L.; Stigler, M. H.; Jones-Web, R.; Kugler, K. C.; Pasch, K. E.; Williams, C. L.; "Outcomes from a group-randomized controlled trial of a multi-component alcohol sue preventive intervention for urban youth: project northland Chicago", ADDICTION(2008), 103 (4): 606-18. Sixty-one public schools in Chicago were recruited to participate, where grouped into neighborhood study units and assigned randomly to intervention or "delayed" program control condition, The study sample was (n=5812 students) was primarily African American, Hispanic and low income. INTERVENTION: Students beginning in sixth grade (age 12 years), received 3 years of intervention strategies (curricula,family interventions, youth-led community service projects, community organizing). MEASUREMENTS: Students participated in yearly classroom -based survey to measure their alcohol use and related risk and protective factors. Additional evaluation components included a parent survey,a community leader survey and alcohol purchase attempts. FINDINGS: Overall, the intervention, compared with a control condition receiving "prevention as usual:, was not effective in reducing alcohol use,drug use or any hypothesized mediating variables. CONCLUSIONS: Study results indicate the importance of conducing evaluations of previously validated programs in contexts that differ from the original study sample. Also the findings highlight the need for further research with urban, low-income adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds to identify effective methods to prevent and reduce alcohol use.
Quindlen, Anna; "The drug that pretends it isn't", NEWSWEEK (04/10/2000), 135 (15): 88p. Discusses the reluctance of people in the United States to refer to alcohol as a drug. The role of alcohol-abuse in accidents, health problems, and crime, and its annual cost to the U. S. economy; The notion that the fight against illicit drugs should be given priority over alcohol-related problems; The inability of some people to drink in moderation; The proposed use of alcohol excise-taxes to combat alcohol abuse; Factors affecting underage drinking in the U. S.
Teen Drinking Not Just A Phase
Teen-agers who exhibit symptoms of drinking problems today are
more likely to develop serious drinking problems, other substance
abuse, and mental disorders in early adulthood, according to new
research. Rather than "going through a phase" that they will out
grow, the new study indicates that their drinking and mental health
problems will get worse with age if left untreated. Previous studies
have shown that these "early onset" substance abusers difficult to
treat in adulthood.
Dr. Paul Rohde of the Oregon Research Institute interviewed 940 high school students twice during adolescence and again at age 24. The results of the study, published in the January issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, indicate that those will diagnosed drinking problems, or even symptoms of drinking problems as teens were more likely to:
Author and speaker Shelly Marshall literally wrote the book on treating teen-age abusers. Her book, Parents Need to Know: Teenage Addicts Can Recover points out common prejudices about teen addicts and the effectiveness of placing teen addicts in multigenerational programs.
Cheap Prices Encourage Binge Drinking : Marketing practices linked to higher rates of drinking (American Journal of Preventive Medicine, October, 2003)
Researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS) released a new study documenting, through systematic on-site observations, the extent to which college students are targeted with sales of large volumes of alcohol, low sale prices, and frequent alcohol promotions at bars, liquor stores, and other retail outlets surrounding college campuses. 118 colleges were analyzed for this study.
The study found a strong association between the presence of these promotions and higher rates of heavy drinking on college campuses. According to previous CAS research, underage students consume 48 percent of all alcohol consumed on college campuses.
The study paints a portrait of the alcohol promotions college students will likely encounter as they start school this fall and enumerates the typical price of a beer, which can be as cheap as 25 cents. This study marks the first time that trained observers went into bars and liquor stores surrounding college campuses to obtain a national picture of the marketing practices for alcohol in college communities without relying solely on student recall.
"With its findings on the price and marketing sensitivity of high-risk, destructive binge drinking among college students, the Harvard study is testimony to the importance of a community-wide focus on behavior change strategies," said J. Michael McGinnis, MD, Senior Vice President and Director of the Health Group of The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. "These efforts must include not only college administrators and students, but local business and community leaders, civic organizations, and the alcohol industry as well."
A total of 1,684 off-premise establishments and 830 on-premise establishments were observed. Field data collectors received more than 22 hours of training, including both classroom instruction and supervised observations in the community.
College student binge drinking, as defined by Wechsler and other public health researchers, is the consumption of five or more drinks in a row at least once in the past two weeks for men, and four or more drinks in a row for women. Research has shown that this style of binge drinking is associated with lower grades, vandalism, and physical and sexual violence.
The researchers conclude that efforts to reduce problems associated with college binge drinking have focused primarily on education and changes in student behavior. However, the results of this study suggest that the efforts to regulate marketing practices (e.g. sale prices, super-sized packaging, promotions, and exterior advertisements) may be important strategies.
"Alcohol advertising and young people", Alcohol Policies
Project, Center for Science in the Public Interest.
--Young people view approximately 20,000 commercials each year, of
which nearly 2,000 are for beer and wine. For every "just say no" or
"know when to say when" public service announcement, teens will view
25 to 50 beer and wine commercials.
--In 2000, brewers spent more than $770 million on television ads and
$15 million more on radio.
--Since dropping its own TV ad ban in 1996, liquor-industry
expenditures on broadcast commercials (primarily on cable TV) have
skyrocketed from $3.6 million to more than $25 million in 2000.
--Diego, maker of Smirnoff Vodka, Captain Morgan's Rum, and Cuervo
Tequila, has announced plans to spend as much as $1 billion on
television liquor ads over the next five years.
Address: http://www.cspinet.org/booze/liquor_branded_advertising_FS1.htm
"Types of Alcoholic Beverages Usually Consumed by Students in 9th-12th Grades --- Four States", MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT (005), 56(29): 737-740. Researchers found that more than 4 in 10 teens in Arkansas, New Mexico, Nebraska and Wyoming drank, and that bourbon, rum, scotch, vodka and whiskey were more popular with drinkers than beer. Liquor was the most popular alcoholic drink with teens in all four states, followed by beer or malt liquor, then wine. For example, 44.7 percent of Arkansas teens drank liquor, compared to 1.6 percent who drank wine.
Liquor was the most popular drink among girls in all four states, and the favorite of boys in three; only in Nebraska was beer more popular among boys.
James Garbutt, a professor of psychiatry at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, said, "It is intriguing that hard liquor is the preferred beverage. I wouldn't intuitively have thought that."
Researchers said that liquor may be more popular because it's easier to conceal by mixing with a soft drink, or the taste may be more palatable. Garbutt speculated that young drinkers also may prefer liquor because it get them drunk faster.
"Young people and alcohol", georgeAlcohol Policies Project, Center
for Science in the Public Interest.
--Approximately 9.7 million current drinkers in the United States are
between the ages of 12-20. Of these young drinkers, 18.7% engage in
binge drinking and 6% are heavy drinkers.
--On average young people begin drinking at 13.1 years of age.
--By the time they are high school seniors, 80% have used alcohol and
62% have been drunk.
--Girls are beginning to drink at younger ages. In the 1960s, 7% of
10-to 14-year-old females used alcohol, by the early 1980s, that
figure had risen to 31%.
--Due to heavy drinking, nearly one out of every five teenagers (16%)
has experiences "black outs", after which they could not remember
what happened the previous evening.
--Young people have easy access to alcohol. In alcohol purchase
attempts made by researchers across the U. S., buyers who appeared to
be underage were able to purchases alcohol with no questions asked at
least 50% of the time.
--Alcohol is a factor in the four leading causes of death among
person ages 10 to 24; motor vehicle crashes, unintentional injuries,
homicide, and suicide.
The Facts: to buckle up America, safety belts and teens 2003
report, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, March, 2003.
"Teens have the highest fatality rate in motor vehicle crashes than
any other age group. There are many reasons; for instance, while
teens are learning new skills needed for driving, many frequently
engage in high-risk behaviors, such as speeding and/or driving after
using alcohol or drugs. Studies also have shown that teens may be
easily distracted while driving. One key reason for high traffic
fatalities among this age group is that they have lower safety belt
use rates than adults. Because teens have an increased exposure to
potentially fatal traffic crashes, it is imperative that efforts to
increase safety belt use among this age group be given the highest
priority. In addition, the youth population has increased by more
than 12 percent since 1993, and is expected to increase by another
sever percent by 2005. As this age group increases as a percentage of
the population, the personal and societal costs associated with
deaths and injuries from motor vehicle crashes also will rise."
Adams, Marcus, AMA: Alcohol damages teens' brains, December 9,
2002. "Studies have found that adults need to drink twice as much
alcohol as teens to experience the same level of harm. In addition,
occasional drinking sprees can damage memory and cognition in
adolescents. Roughly one-in-five youths ages 12 to 20 report binge
drinking, having four to five drinks at a time.
Baer, John S.; Sampson, Paul D.; Barr, Helen M.; Connor, Paul D.; Streissguth, Ann P.; "A 21-year longitudinal analysis of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on young adult drinking." ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY (2003), 60: 377-385. Prenatal alcohol exposure may be a risk factor for the development of alcohol problems in humans. We used data beginning with interviews of women in prenatal care at midpregnancy to predict alcohol use and alcohol related problems in their offspring now aged 21 years. Maternal drinking during pregnancy was assessed from November 4, 1974, through October 2, 1975, along with measures of maternal smoking, use of caffeine and other drugs, and demographic factors. Family history of alcohol problems was assessed from interviews with parents when offspring were 14 years of age and updated when offspring were 21 years of age. Measures of prenatal use of alcohol and other drugs and many aspects of the family environment were assessed at 7 different ages, prenatally through 21 years. Young adult offspring (age, 21 years [N=4331] provide self-reports of drinking quantity and frequency and completed the Alcohol Dependence Scale as a measure of alcohol-related problems and dependence. Results: Univariate, partial least squares, and regression analyses indicate that prenatal alcohol exposure is significantly associated with alcohol problems at 21 years of age. The relationship persists independent of the effects of family history of alcohol problems, nicotine exposure, other prenatal exposures, and postnatal environmental factors including prenatal use of other drugs. Prenatal nicotine exposure was not associated with alcohol problems by offspring at 21 years of age. The analyses reported herein provide evidence of the relationship, across more than 21 years, between prenatal alcohol exposure and the degree of negative consequences that result from heavy drinking in young adulthood. However, those with persistent alcohol problems in midlife typically began drinking in adolescence and young adulthood.
Bierut, Laura J.; "Cigarette smoking and the risk for alcohol use
disorders among adolescent drinkers," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2006), 30 (12):2046-54. "Cigarette smoking and
alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are closely linked, but it is not clear
whether higher rates of AUD among smokers are solely attributable to
heavier drinking or, alternatively, whether smokers are more
vulnerable to alcohol abuse and dependence than nonsmokers who drink
comparable quantities. Specifically, we analyzed the relationship
between cigarette smoking, drinking, and AUDs. Methods: Data were
from the aggregated 2002 through 2004 U.S. National Survey on Drug
Use and Health. Participants were randomly selected,
household-dwelling adolescents and young adults (ages 12-20) from the
noninstitutionalized, civilian population of the United States
(N=74,836). Measurements included current DSM-IV alcohol abuse or
dependence, number of drinks in the past 30 days, and past-year
cigarette smoking, defined as having smoked more than 100 cigarettes
across the lifetime and having smoked during the past year. Results:
Past-year smokers (prevalence=16.0%) drank in higher quantities than
never-smokers, but were also at elevated risk for AUD when compared
with never-smokers who drank equivalent quantities. The effect was
observed across age groups, but was more prominent among younger
adolescents. After adjusting for drinking quantity and
sociodemographic variables, smokers had 4.5-fold higher odds of AUD
than never-smokers [95% confidence interval (95% CI),
3.1-6.6]. Youths who reported smoking but did not cross the
100-cigarette threshold were at intermediate risk [odds ratio
(OR), 2.3; 95% CI, 1.7-3.3]. Differences in AUD between smokers
and never-smokers were most pronounced at lower levels of drinking.
Conclusions: The results are consistent with a higher vulnerability
to AUDs among smokers, compared with nonsmokers who drink equivalent
quantities."
Brown, Sandra A.; Tapert, Susan F.; Granholm, Eric; Delis, Dean
C.; "Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: effects of protracted
alcohol use," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2000),
24 (2): 164-171. (Alcohol dependent adolescents n=33 compared with
n=24 adolescents with no history of alcohol dependence, ages 15-16).
Alcohol-dependent and comparison adolescents demonstrated significant
differences on several NP scores. Protracted alcohol use was
associated with poorer performance on verbal and nonverbal retention
in the context of intact learning and recognition discriminability.
Recent alcohol withdrawal among adolescents was associated with poor
visuospatial functioning, whereas lifetime alcohol withdrawal was
associated with poorer retrieval of verbal and non verbal
information.
Califano, Joseph A., Jr.; "Teen tipplers: America's underage
drinking epidemic," National Center onand Substance Abuse, Columbia
University (February 26, 2002). "Children under the age of 21 drink
25 percent of the alcohol consumed in the U. S. Drinking beer is teen
America's fatal attraction. Underage drinkers are a critical segment
of the alcohol beverage market. Individuals who do not drink before
age 21 are virtually certain never to do do: 82.8 percent of adults
who drink had their first drink of alcohol before age 21. In 1998,
they accounted for $27 billion of the $108 billion spent on alcohol,
including as much as $15 billion on beer. Underage drinkers are a
critical segment of the alcohol beverage market. Individuals who do
not drink before age 21 are virtually certain never to do so. 82.8
percent of adults who drink had their first drink of alcohol before
age 21. Underage drinkers consume 25 percent of the alcohol--most
often beer--sold in this country. In 1998, they accounted for up to
$27 billion of the $108 billion spent on alcohol, including as much
as $15 billion on beer. Without underage drinkers, the alcohol
industry, and the beer industry in particular, would suffer severe
economic declines and dramatic loss of profits."
Center for Disease Control and Prevention study on the involvement
of young drivers in fatal alcohol-related vehicle crashes is
encouraging in that it demonstrated the 21 minimum drinking age, zero
tolerance, graduated licensing and increased enforcement are showing
a positive impact on the nation's underage drinking problem. CDC
findings, based on unpublished data from Fatality Analysis Reporting
System (FARS) shows that young drivers are at high risk for fatal
alcohol-related crashes when driving exposure is considered. Youth
make up 6.9 percent of the total driving population, they constitute
13 percent of the alcohol-involved drivers in fatal crashes, in 2001,
more than 2,400 youth ages 15 to 20 were killed in alcohol-related
traffic crashes.
Address: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5148a2.htm
The Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth (CAMY) Address: http://camy.org/
STOP Underage Drinking Act: Important First Step
Statement Attributable to Jim O'Hara, Executive Director, Center
on Alcohol Marketing and Youth
Girls More Likely Than Boys to Be Overexposed to Alcohol
Advertising in Magazines
Study published in the "Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine" documents girls' overexposure
Alcohol Ads Outnumber Responsibility Ads 226 to 1. In 2002, responsibility ads plummeted while alcohol product ads soared
"Costs of underage drinking," Pacific Institute, U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, revised October 1999.
Costs of alcohol use by youths in 1996 in 1998 dollars
Chambers, R . Andrew; Taylor, Jane R.; Potenza, Marc N.,
"Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a
critical period of addiction vulnerability, AMERICAN JOURNAL OF
PSYCHIATRY (2003), 160: 1041-1052. Epidemiological studies indicate
that experiments with addictive drugs and onset of addictive
disorders is primarily concentrated in adolescence and young
adulthood. The authors describe basic and clinical data supporting
adolescent neurodevelopment as a biologically critical period of
greater for experimentation with substances and acquisition of
substance use disorders. Results: Adolescent neurodevelopment occurs
in brain regions associated with motivation, impulsivity, and
addiction. Adolescent impulsivity and/or novelty seeking as a
transitional trait behavior can be explained in part by maturational
changes in frontal cortical and subsoritcal monoaminergic systems.
These developmental processes may advantageously promote learning
drives for adaptation to adult roles but may also confer greater
vulnerability to the addictive actions of drugs. Conclusions: An
exploration of developmental stages in neurocircuitry involved in
impulse control has significant implications for understanding
adolescent behavior, addiction vulnerability, and the prevention of
addiction in adolescence and adulthood.
The "Check Yourself" campaign is designed to lead 15- to
18-year-old recreational drug and alcohol users to reconsider their
relationships with their substances of choice and ultimately curtail
their use. Address:
http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ&sdn=alcoholism&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fcheckyourself.com
Chung, T ; Martin, CS ; Grella, CE ; Winters, KC ; Abrantes, AM ;
Brown, SA; "Course of alcohol problems in treated adolescents,"
ALCOHOLISM, CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2003 Feb; 27(2):
253-61. Knowledge of the clinical course in treated adolescents is
fundamental to determining the influence of treatment on long-term
functioning and the factors associated with change in the severity of
alcohol problems over time. The 2002 annual Research Society on
Alcoholism meeting and organized by Tammy Chung and Christopher S.
Martin, presented research on the course of alcohol-related problems
in treated adolescents who were followed prospectively for 1 to 8
years. Presentations included (1) Alcohol use outcomes at 1 year
among adolescents in the drug abuse treatment outcomes studies, by
Christine E. Grella; (2) Pathways and predictors of the course of
adolescent alcohol problems across 1- and 3-year follow-ups, by Tammy
Chung; (3) Young adult outcomes of an adolescent clinical sample at
5-year follow-up, by Ken C. Winters; and (4) Trajectories of alcohol
involvement following addiction treatment through 8-year follow-up in
adolescents, by Ana M. Abrantes, Denis M. McCarthy, Gregory A.
Aarons, and Sandra A. Brown. Sandra A. Brown, discussant, commented
on the presentations. Results from these studies indicate multiple
pathways of change, distinguished by fluctuations in the chronicity
and severity of alcohol problems. Across studies, most adolescents
showed reductions in alcohol use and problems after treatment, with
concurrent improvements in psycho social functioning. Findings
highlight the influence of other drug use on post treatment patterns
of alcohol involvement and the need to consider the effect of
normative developmental transitions on the course of adolescent-onset
substance use disorders.
Clifford, Jane, "Tapping into young minds," SignonSanDiego.com,
January 25, 2003.
"Shimasaki says she got involved about two years ago after seeing the
rise of drug and alcohol use in young people her age, especially
among her friends.
"We are told, "Just say no, avoid the situation,' but in reality we're seeing ads that portray alcohol as a normal part of life and what kids need to do to fit in. Research shows that 58 percent of kids in grades 5 through 12 say that alcohol ads encourage them to drink. So kids do notice the ads." "The public, including parents, have the misconception that alcohol is a safe drug, says researcher Sandra Brown. "They'd actually rather see their kids drink than do drugs."
"The most dangerous kind of drinking is binge drinking, which is five or more drinks at one time," she says, adding that it is on the rise in the United States. "For youth, that produces withdrawal and damage to the hippo campus, the part of the brain critical to learning and memory.
"If in advertising, what we're modeling is the positive effects--the more you drink, the better you feel--then you need to know that the reality is, the more you drink, the more it kills brain cells."
Brown says 8 in 10 teenagers will have had some alcohol by the time they graduate. About half of high school students, she adds, report drinking in the last two weeks, "and about a quarter of youth binge drink, which is five or more drinks at one sitting."
"Alcohol is a factor in the four leading causes of death among
persons ages 10 to 24--car crashes, suicide, homicide, and
unintentional injuries." Our studies at UCSD show that youth who
drank alcohol 100 times have used fewer strategies to learn new
information and remember less, about 10 percent less, than you who
don't drink alcohol."
Curley, Bob, "Industry hammered for marketing to kids, binge
drinkers, alcoholics", New York Time, April 17, 2003.
"The alcohol industry understands alcoholism better than anyone. .
.If every American drank according to the federal guidelines,
industry sales would be cut by 80 percent." said Jean Kilbourne, Ed.
D., a visiting scholar at Wellesley College and a national expert on
alcohol and tobacco advertising.
"No matter what you're selling, the heavy user is your best customer" she said, charging that the alcohol industry "needs alcoholics and binge drinkers on campus."
George Hacker, director of the Alcohol Policies Project at the CENTER FOR SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST, agreed. "Ten percent of consumers drink 50 percent of the alcohol," he said. "Without them, the alcohol industry would dry up like a prune."
Tom Greenfield, a senior researcher at the ALCOHOL RESEARCH GROUP, said that marketing for beer, in particular, encourages over consumption. For instance, while research shows that the top 20 percent of wine buyers consume one to four glasses at a sitting, Greenfield said the top 20 percent of beer purchasers drinks four or more at a sitting.
Underage drinkers comprise 11 to 20 percent of the alcohol market, contents Jernigan, who says most underage drinker drink to excess. "These are not young people having a glass of wine at a school cafeteria soiree," he said. "New drinkers are heavy drinkers"
Kilbourne said that advertising, which she called "the propaganda of American society," trivializes relationships, teaches that happiness can be bought, and says that people are less important than things. "That's especially troubling when the product is addictive," she said. "We know addicts feel lonely and feel that the substance they are addicted to is their only friend."
"Dangerous season for teens", Alcoholism.About.com. More than
one-third of youth under the age of 21 killed alcohol-related
fatalities in 2001 died during the months of April, May and
June--prom and graduation season--according to the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). In 2001 alone, 2950 children
under 21 died in alcohol-related traffic fatalities--1,012 died
during the months of April, May and June. A survey conducted by the
Century Council reveled that 13-20 twenty year old reported they are
drinking alcoholic beverages. Youth are consuming alcohol illegally,
but the source for 52% of those same 13-20 year-olds is that they got
the alcohol from their parents or their friends parents.
Dawson DA ; Grant BF ; Li TK; "Impact of age at first drink on stress-reactive drinking", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2007), 31(1): 69-77, "Data collected in the 2001 to 2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) were used to estimate the extent to which age at first drink modified the association between stress and average daily volume (ADV) of ethanol intake in a sample of 26,946 past-year drinkers. Successive models estimated the magnitude and significance of the interaction between age at first drink (ages 14 or younger, 15-17, and 18 or older) and number of stressors (out of 12 past-year negative life events) after (1) adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, (2) additionally adjusting for family history of alcoholism, comorbid psychopathology, adolescent, and past-year tobacco and illicit drug use, and (3) additionally adjusting for all other significant interactions with number of stressors. The findings of this study are consistent with the argument that early-onset drinking may increase stress-reactive ethanol consumption; however, these findings need to be replicated in an experimental human study in order to control fully the direction of the relationship between stress and consumption.
Daugherty, Donald M.;Mathias, Charles W.; Tester Melissa L.;
March, Dawn M.;"Age at first drink related to behavioral measures of
impulsivity: the immediate and delayed memory tasks", ALCOHOLISM:
CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004), 28)3):408-414. Using a
laboratory behavioral measure of impulsivity, two groups of women
were compared. They differed in their self-reported age of first
drink (early-on set drinking, age <18, n=40 and late-onset
drinking, age >=21, n=23. The results demonstrate that differences
in impulsive behavioral responding are distinguishable even between
groups of alcohol drinkers who are not experiencing clinically
significant problems with alcohol.
"Early age of first drink like symptom, not cause, of alcoholism.," University of Minnesota,, posted 8/16/2001, ALCOHOLISM : CLINICAL AN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH, August, 2001. "Adolescents who take their first drink before age 15 tend to run a high risk of developing alcoholism. Research suggests that early drinking is likely not the cause of alcoholism, but a symptom of an underlying predisposition to alcoholism and other behavioral problems. An early age of first drink (AFD) runs in families, and early AFD appears to be heritable in males.
We found that early AFD is associated not simply with alcoholism, but with a wide range of behavioral outcomes that are indicative of a reluctance or inability to control one's behavior. Besides alcoholism, early AFD include drug abuse, delinquency, antisocial behavior in adulthood and decreased educational attainment. Early AFD adolescents also showed a reduced amplitude of the P3 brain wave, a standard psychophysiological marker for alcoholism risk. Adolescents who had at least one parent who experienced an early AFD are more likely to experience early AFD themselves. Such adolescents were more likely to become early drinkers, and boys especially, were more like to exhibit conduct disorder and a pattern of rebelliousness. Of those boys whose parents both had an early AFD, 60 percent had one or both of these conditions.
Ellickson, Phyllis, "Early drinking a warning sign", PEDIATRICS, May,
2003. Underage drinking is a major national problem , with estimates
suggesting that by 8th grade one-fourth for all adolescents have
consumed alcohol to the point of intoxication. In addition,
adolescent drinking plays a key role in the four leading causes of
death among teens--car accidents, accidental injuries, homicides and
suicides.
At age 23, those identified in 7th grade as drinkers still showed significantly more behavior problems than those who had been nondrinkers. The drinkers were 2 to 3 times more likely to use hard drugs, experience multiple drug problems, or have undergone alcohol or drug treatment, 3 times more likely to have been arrested for drunk driving, twice as likely to engage in violent criminal behavior in the past year, and nearly 1.5 times more likely to report missing work for no reason.
These results suggest that drinking in early adolescence may be among the most important risk factors for a wide variety of behavior problems during the transition to young adulthood. Preventing drinking initiation before Grade 7 may help reduce these later problems. Researchers say it is not clear what mechanisms link early alcohol use to behavior problems later in life. It may be that alcohol disrupts the development of adequate social and academic skills that are needed to succeed later in life. Or early alcohol use may signal that and individual is predisposed to use drugs and develop other behavioral problems.
"Enforcing Underage-drinking laws", CSPINet.org. There is no doubt
that underage drinking is a major public health problem in the United
States. In 1998, about 10.4 million current drinkers were between the
ages of 12 and 20. More than five million of these individuals were
binge drinkers. One study estimates the total economic cost of
alcohol use by underage drinkers in America amounts to nearly %53
billion a year. This includes more than $29 billion in
alcohol-related violent crime costs, over $19 billion in traffic
crashes, and over %1.5 billion suicide attempts (fatal and nonfatal).
http://www.cspinet.org/booze/enforcing.htm
Gordon, Serena; "Feeling no pain, huh?", HEALTHDAYREPORTER, April 14,
2003. In a new study, University of Michigan researchers found people
who have alcohol in their system--even when it's far less than the
legal limit for impaired driving--are more likely to be severely
injured in car crashes. "While having a designated driver is
recommended, it doesn't protect you if you get into a crash and you
have alcohol on board. If you get into a crash, having alcohol in
your system increased the injury severity by 30 percent. Drinking
alcohol before a crash more than doubled the risk of dying in an
accident. The risk of almost every type of injury went up with the
consumption of alcohol. Note: alcohol thins the blood and increases
the changes of bleeding to death.
Graham, Nanette; "The influence of predictors on adolescent drunk
use: an examination of individual effects", YOUTH AND SOCIETY (1996),
28 (2): 215-235. According to Johnston, O'Malley and Bachman (1991)
the United States has the highest level of teenage drug use of an
industrialized nation in the world. National surveys on drug use
indicate that among the adolescent populations ages 12 to 17, 22%
reported any illicit drug use during their lifetimes, 15% reported
and illicit drug use during the previous year, and 8% reported the
previous month (National Household Survey on Alcohol or Drug Abuse,
1991). Predictive factors include feelings of alienation from parents
and society, association with drug-using peers, negative attitudes
toward school,k low believe in conventional social rules, low
self-esteem, antisocial and rebellious behavior, availability of
drugs, family alcohol and drug behavior, academic failure, and
attitudes and beliefs favorable toward drug use.
Greenfield, Thomas K.; Rogers, John D.;"Who drinks most of the
alcohol in the U. S. The policy implications," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON
ALCOHOL (1999), 60 (1): 78-89. " Number of respondents 7,049, 4,784
drinkers. Men were over represented at the highest volumes,
contributing about 78% of the country's total reported consumption.
Similarly, young adults aged 18 to 29 are disproportionately
represented in the heaviest drinking levels. Conclusions: the bulk of
the alcohol reported drunk in the U. S. is consumed by a relatively
small population of very heavy drinkers. Prevention policies implied
by this concentration include strengthening social norms,
discouraging heavy consumption, restricting marketing practices that
target heavy drinkers, and implementing measure to reduce consumption
by the heaviest drinkers."
Guilamo-Ramos, et al.; "Progressing from light experimentation to
heavy episodic drinking in early and middle adolescence," JOURNAL OF
STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2004), 65: 494-500. "Conclusions: Adolescents who
are light experimenters represent a high-risk group as a consequence
of their initial consumption tendencies. Some of these adolescents
graduated beyond simple experimentation and moved into patterns of
consumption that could be considered dangerous. Our analyses
implicated an array of parental-based buffers: parent involvement in
the adolescent's life, development of good communication patterns and
expressions of warmth and affection. Minimizing associations with
peers who consume alcohol and may also have a buffering effect. There
was evidence that these buffers may dampen gender differences not so
much be affecting female drinking tendencies as by keeping males at
reduced levels of alcohol consumption comparable to those of
females."
Guo, Jie; Hawkins, J. David; Hill, Karl G.; Abbott, Robert D.;
"Childhood and adolescent predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence
in young adulthood", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2001), 62:
754-762. This study also shows that at the early age of 10, efforts
that prevent and reduce delinquency, prevent and reduce a child's
association with the bonding to antisocial and alcohol-using peers
and prevent children from developing favorable attitudes towards
alcohol may also reduce the risk of alcohol dependence in young adult
hood. Six pro social constructs predicted a lower risk for alcohol
abuse and dependence at age 21. The significant protective factors
were strong bonding to school, high educational expectations, close
parental monitoring of children and clearly defined family rules for
behavior, high level of refusal skills and strong beliefs in the
moral order only. Of these, only school bonding consistently
predicted less risk for alcohol abuse and dependence from all three
developmental periods. On the antisocial path, youths who has a
higher risk of alcohol abuse and dependence at age 21 were those who
engaged in more problem behaviors, had more opportunities for
involvement with antisocial others, spent more time with and were
more bonded to those individuals, viewed fewer negative consequences
from antisocial behaviors and held more favorable views on alcohol
use. Of those, prior problem behaviors, antisocial opportunities and
involvement consistently predicted alcohol abuse and dependence from
all three ages: 10, 14 and 16.
Hingson, RW; Heeren, T; Winter, M. R.: "Age of alcohol-dependence onset: associations with severity of dependence and seeking treatment", PEDIATRICS (2006), 118(3): e755-63. "RESULTS: Of persons ever alcohol dependent, 15% were diagnosable before age 18, 47% before age 21, and two thirds before age 25. Twenty-eight percent reported > or = 2 dependence episodes, 45% experienced an episode exceeding 1 year, and 34% reported 6 or 7 dependence criteria. Relative to those first alcohol dependent at > or = 30 years, 21% of those ever dependent, the odds of ever seeking help were lower among those first dependent before ages 18, 20, and 25. Yet, persons first dependent at < or = 25 years had significantly greater odds of experiencing multiple dependence episodes, episodes exceeding 1 year, and more dependence symptoms. Analyses indicated that the previously reported increased odds that persons who start to drink at an early age develop features of chronic relapsing dependence may have resulted from early drinkers being more likely to develop alcohol dependence at younger ages. This, in turn, increased their odds of experiencing multiple and longer episodes of alcohol dependence with more symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents need to be screened and counseled about alcohol, and treatment services should be reinforced by programs and policies to delay age of first alcohol dependence."
Hingson RW ; Heeren T ; Winter M. R.; "Age of alcohol-dependence onset: associations with severity of dependence and seeking treatment", PEDIATRICS (2006), 118(3): e755-63. "Of persons ever alcohol dependent, 15% were diagnosable before age 18, 47% before age 21, and two thirds before age 25. Twenty-eight percent reported > or = 2 dependence episodes, 45% experienced an episode exceeding 1 year, and 34% reported 6 or 7 dependence criteria. Relative to those first alcohol dependent at > or = 30 years, 21% of those ever dependent, the odds of ever seeking help were lower among those first dependent before ages 18, 20, and 25. Yet, persons first dependent at < or = 25 years had significantly greater odds of experiencing multiple dependence episodes, episodes exceeding 1 year, and more dependence symptoms. Analyses indicated that the previously reported increased odds that persons who start to drink at an early age develop features of chronic relapsing dependence may have resulted from early drinkers being more likely to develop alcohol dependence at younger ages. This, in turn, increased their odds of experiencing multiple and longer episodes of alcohol dependence with more symptoms. Adolescents need to be screened and counseled about alcohol, and treatment services should be reinforced by programs and policies to delay age of first alcohol dependence
Hingson, Ralph W.; Heeren, Timothy; Winter, Michael R.; "Age of drinking onset and alcohol dependence: age at onset, duration, and severity," ARCHIVES IN PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MEDICINE (2006): 160, 739-746. (43, 093 adults surveyed) Relative to respondents who began drinking at 21 years or older, those who began drinking before age 14 years were more likely to experience alcohol dependence ever and within 10 years of first drinking (adjusted hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals. They also more often experiences past-year dependence and multiple dependence episodes. Among alcohol-dependent persons, the odds were 2.62 (95%) for having at least 1 episode exceeding 1 year and 2.98 (95%) for meeting 6 or 7 dependence diagnostic criteria. Conclusion: There is a need to screen and counsel adolescents about alcohol use and to implement policies and programs that delay alcohol consumption.
Hingson, R.; Hereen, T.; Zakocs, R.; Winter,M.; Wechsler, H.; "Age of first intoxication, heavy drinking, driving after drinking and risk of unintentional injury among U. S. college students", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2003), 64 (1): 23-31. 14,138 respondents. This study explored whether college students who were first intoxicated by alcohol at ages younger than 19 are more likely to become alcohol dependent and frequent heavy drinkers, drive after drinking, ride with intoxicated drivers and be injured after drinking. It also investigated whether these results occur because these students believe they can drink more and still drive legally and safely. Results: compared with respondents first drunk at age 19 or older, those first drunk prior to age 19 were significantly more likely to be alcohol dependent and frequent heavy drinkers, to report driving after any drinking, driving after five or more drinks, riding with a driver who was high or drunk and, after drinking, sustaining injuries that required medical attention. Respondents first intoxicated at younger ages believed they could consume more drinks and still drive safely and legally; this contributed to their greater likelihood of driving after drinking and riding with high or drunk drivers.
Hingson, R.; Heeren, T.; Winter, M. R..; Wechsler, H.;"Early age of first drunkenness as a factor in college students' unplanned and unprotected sex attributable to drinking", PEDIATRICS (2003), 111 (1), 34-41. Early age of drinking onset has been associated with a greater likelihood among adults of experiencing alcohol dependence, frequent heavy drinking even among nondependent drinkers, and an increased risk of motor vehicle crashes, unintentional injuries, and physical fights after drinking. This study explores whether first getting drunk at a younger age is associated with a greater likelihood of college students reporting that they had unplanned or unprotected sexual intercourse because of their drinking. Results: Among college students who drink, those first drunk before age 13 compared with those who never drank until age 19 or older has a 2.0 times greater odds of having unplanned sex and a 2.2 times greater odds of having unprotected sex reportedly because of drinking, even after controlling for age, race/ethnicity, marital status, parental drinking history and frequency of smoking and marijuana use. After further controlling for history of alcohol dependence and frequency of heavy drinking those first drunk before age 13 had 1.5 times greater odds of unplanned sex and 1.7 times greater odds of unprotected sex reportedly because of drinking. Conclusions: Clinical, educational, legal, and community interventions to delay age of first getting drunk need to be coupled with efforts to prevent unplanned and unprotected sexual intercourse among US college students.
"
Holding Parents Accountable"--Parents who decide to begin teaching
their children early to drink "responsibly" may want to rethink that
position due to a growing number of laws going on the books.
About.com 12-08-02.
"How will you child drink?" About.com, January 16, 2003.
Although there is scientific evidence that genetic factors play a
role in how alcohol will affect your children if and when they drink,
how they drink is probably more influenced by the attitude toward
drinking of those the grow up around. (full
text)
Learning Disabilities and Drinking, About.com, January 16, 2003.
Children with learning disabilities may be more likely to end up
drinking, smoking and using drugs, according to research, but early
recognition and treatment can prevent drug and alcohol abuse.
(full text)
Kuperman, Samuel; Chan, Grace; Kramer, John R; Bierut, Laura ; Bucholz, Kathleen K.; Fox, Louis ; Hesselbrock, Victor ; Numberger, John I. Jr.; Reich, Theodore; Reich, Wendy; Schuckit, Marc A.; Relationship of age of first drink to child behavioral problems and family psychopathology", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH, 29(10):1906-1912, October 2005. 440 people from ages 7 to 17 were studied. "Studies have implicated a wide variety of variables as being associated with an early age of first drink (AFD). AFD in turn has been associated with a variety of negative outcomes in adolescence and early adulthood. This study is designed to quantify the contributions of these antecedent variables to prediction of AFD; in particular it will carefully examine the involvement of variables in four areas (child characteristics, family demographics, family psychopathology, and child behavior problems).
These included gender, age at interview, the number of adult sibs with alcohol dependence, being held back a year in school, and conduct scale score. However, the number of conduct symptoms appeared to contain the contributions of gender and being held back a grade in school, and these two variables were subsequently removed from the model. The remaining three variables explained 45% of the model variance; age at interview accounted for 38.3%, conduct scale score accounted for 6.2%, and the number of alcohol-dependent adult sibs accounted for 0.5%. No family history measures of alcohol dependence or antisocial personality disorder were contributory to the prediction model for AFD.
Both the "number of conduct symptoms" and the "number of adult sibs with alcohol dependence" are inversely associated with predicted AFD. The latter variable appears marginally predictive of AFD and suggests a condition in which the child's household, regardless of strength of family history of AD (or antisocial personality disorder), appears conducive to early drinking. Thus, child and environmental factors are stronger predictors of age of first drink than family history."
Kreichbaun, Norbert and Zering, Gerald, "Adolescent patients." In:
HANDBOOK OF ALCOHOLISM, edited by Gerald Zering, Boca Raton: CRC
Press, 2000, pp. 129-136." Prognosis of abuse and dependence in
adolescents is better compared to the prognosis in adults due to the
developmental potential in adolescents. Manifest alcohol abuse and
dependence in a developing person lad to developmental arrest and
thus, to immature personality. Because of the shorter duration of
possible abusive and dependent alcohol consumption, organ damage and
psycho social impairment are less pronounced than in the adult (e.g.
less liver damage, less neurological impairment, less social
isolation). Dependence on alcohol develops faster than in the adults.
A recent study found that 40% of patients who had started to drink at
the age of 15 developed alcohol dependence during their lifetime,
whereas 10% of those who had started to drink at age 21 to 22
developed alcohol abuse. The adolescent discovers parental mistakes
and flaws and responds to them with disappointment. This
disappointment leads to anger directed toward the parents, because
they do not fulfill the wishful expectations of childhood. The risk
of alcohol-induced organ damage and other negative consequences of
alcohol abuse is almost always underestimated by adolescents.
Substance-abusing adolescents are, as a general rule, are poly
toxicomanic. Only 20 to 40 % of alcohol abusing adolescents stick to
alcohol as their only drug of abuse; the remainder abuse drugs from a
variety of chemical classes, either sequentially or
simultaneously.
Lynskey, Michael T.; Bucholz, Kathleen K.; Madden, Pamela A. F.; Heath, Andrew C.; "Early-onset alcohol-use behaviors and subsequent alcohol-related driving risks in young women: a twin study", JOURNAL OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGS (2007), 68 (6): 798-804. The purpose of this study was to estimate associations between early-onset alcohol use/intoxication and subsequent risks of alcohol-related driving risks in young women after control for familial liability for these behaviors. Self-reported data on alcohol use and associated risks were collected from a representative sample of 3,786 Missouri-born adolescent female twins. After statistical control for familial liability to alcohol-related driving risks, alcohol dependence, and length of exposure to risk (i.e., time between the earlier of age at onset of drinking or age 16 [the minimum legal driving age in Missouri]), young women who reported early-onset alcohol use/intoxication had odds of alcohol-related driving risks that were from 1.6 to 2.2 times higher than those with a later onset of alcohol use or intoxication. Young women who commence drinking at an early age are at heightened risks for subsequent alcohol-related driving risks, and these associations cannot be explained entirely by familial liability for these behaviors.
Miller, JW; Naimi , TS; Brewer, RD; Jones, SE; "Binge Drinking an Associated Health Risk Behaviors Among High School Students", PEDIATRICS (2007),119 (1),76-85. "Binge drinking is the most common pattern of alcohol consumption among high school youth who drink alcohol and is strongly associated with a wide range of other health risk behaviors. Effective intervention strategies (e.g., enforcement of the minimum legal drinking age, screening and brief intervention, and increasing alcohol taxes) should be implemented to prevent underage alcohol consumption and adverse health and social consequences resulting from this behavior."
Paschall, Mallie J.; Freisthler, Bridget; Lipton, Robert I.; "Moderate alcohol use and depression in young adults: findings from a National Longitudinal Study", AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH (2005), 95 (3): 453-457. A examination of the association between moderate alcohol use and depressive mood among young adults before and after adjustment for demographic, health, and socioeconomic factors that may act as confounders. Conclusions. Moderate alcohol use may have no effect on depression in young adults relative to abstinence from alcohol use.
Risk Factors: 1) positive family history of alcohol abuse, compulsive behavior, depression or personality disorders; 2) early onset of drinking; 3) dysfunctional family, especially conflicts, divorce of parents, physical and/or verbal abuse, traumata, neglect; 4) lack of role model for moderate alcohol consumption; 5) previous or present learning disorder and attention deficit disorder; 6) preexisting depression; 7) anxiety disorder or obsessive compulsive disorder with frequent social withdrawal; 8) easy access to alcohol; 9) sociocultural background favoring alcohol consumption; and 10) alcohol-abusing peer groups.
Labouvie, Erich; Bates, Marsha E., "Reasons for alcohol use in young adulthood: validation of a three-dimensional measure". JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2002) 65: 145-155. N+1,176, 598 women. 33 reasons for use. Conclusion Suppression reasons not only motivate reactive coping use in response to the appraisal of stressful situations, they are also likely to instigate "prophylactic" or proactive coping use in anticipation of the possible occurrence of stressors, thereby blunting the emotional impact of encounters that would otherwise have been appraised as stressful and aversive.
Lynskey, Michael T.; Bucholz, Kathleen K.; Madden, Pamela A. F.; Heath, Andrew C.; "Early-onset alcohol-use behaviors and subsequent alcohol-related driving risks in young women: a twin study:, JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS (2007), 68 (7): 798-804. The purpose of this study was to estimate associations between early-onset alcohol use/intoxication and subsequent risks of alcohol-related driving risks in young women after control for familial liability for these behaviors. Method: Self-reported data on alcohol use and associated risks were collected from a representative sample of 3,786 Missouri-born adolescent female twins. Results: After statistical control for familial liability to alcohol-related driving risks, alcohol dependence, and length of exposure to risk (i.e., time between the earlier of age at onset of drinking or age 6 (the minimum legal driving age in Missouri), young women who reported early-onset alcohol use/intoxication had odds of alcohol-related driving risks that were from 1.6 to 2.2 times higher than those with a later onset of alcohol use or intoxication. Conclusions: Young women who commence drinking at an early age are at heightened risks for subsequent alcohol-related driving risks, and these associations cannot be explained entirely by familial liability for these behaviors.
"Malignant neglect: substance abuse and American's schools," CASA,
http://www.casacolumbia.org/absolutenm/templates/PressReleases.asp?articleid=110&zoneid=48
Marcus, Adam, "AMA: alcohol damages teens' brains", HEALTHDAYNEWS
REPORTER, December 9, 2002. Studies have found that adults need to
drink twice as much alcohol as teens to experience the same level of
harm. In addition, occasional drinking sprees can damage memory and
cognition in adolescents. Roughly one-in-five youths ages 12 to 20
report binge drinking, having four or five drinks at a time.
Alcohol is implicated in the three leading causes of teen death: car wrecks, unintentional injuries like falls and drowning, and suicides and homicides. It is also a major factor in teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease like HIV.
McCarthy, Denis M., Brown, Sandra A.; "Changes in alcohol
involvement, cognitions and drinking and driving behavior for youth
after they obtain a driver's license," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL
(2004) 65: 289-296. The results indicate a number of changes in
substance involvement after obtaining a driver's license. However,
initially this transition may also indicate a period of protection
against drinking and driving. These results may have implications for
the target and content of drinking and driving interventions. These
initial data on the relationship for youth between obtaining a
driver's license and substance involvement indicate an increase in
frequency of alcohol, cigarette and marijuana use after they begin to
drive independently.
McGue, Matt; "Origins and consequences of age of first drink. I. Associations with substance-use disorders, disinhibitory behavior and psychopathology, and P3 amplitude," , ALCOHOL CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2001), 25 (8): 1156-1165. Although adolescents who take their first drink before age 15 tend to run a high risk of developing alcoholism, research suggests that early drinking is likely not the cause, but rather a symptom of a predisposition to alcoholism and a broad range of indicators of disinhibited behavior and psychopathology. Individuals who first drink at a relatively early age manifest elevates rates of disinhibitory behavior and psychopathology before they first try alcohol. Taken together, these finding suggest that the association of AFD with alcoholism reflects, at least in part, a common underlying vulnerability to disinhibitory behaviors.
Miller, Ted R.; Levy, David T.; Spicer, Rebecca S.; Taylor, Dexter M.; "Societal costs of underage drinking", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2002), 67: 519-528. Underage drinking accounted for at least 16% of alcohol sales in 2001. It led to 3,170 deaths and 2.6 million other harmful events. The estimated $62.9 billion bill (relative SE+ 18.5%) included $5.4 billion in medical costs, $14.9 billion in work loss and other resource costs, and $41.6 billion in lost quality of life, which accounted for 67% of total costs, required challenging indirect measurement. Alcohol-attributable violence and traffic crashes dominated the costs. Leaving aside quality of life, the societal harm of $1 per drink consumed by an underage drinker exceeded the average purchase price of $0.90 or the associated $0.10 in tax revenues. Youth drinking behaviors merit the same kind of serious attention as alcohol and illicit drugs.
Miller, Tim, "The Limiting factor: the economic costs of underage drinking"; DRIVEN, Fall, 1999. From MADD.org
Monti, Peter M.; Miranda, Robert, Jr.; Nixon, Kimberley; Sher,
Kenneth J.; Swartzwelder, H. Scott, Tapert, Susan, White, Aaron,
Crews, Fulton T.; "Adolescence: booze, brains and behavior",
ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2005); 29 (2):
207-220. The adolescent brain is designed to learn; yet the same
plasticity that facilitates neuromaturation also renders it
particularly vulnerable to the damaging effects of alcohol. Some of
the findings presented were:
-The neurochemical, cellular, synaptic, and structural organization
of the adolescent brain makes it more vulnerable than the adult brain
to disruption from activities such as binge drinking. Adolescent rats
that were exposed to binge drinking appear to have permanent damage
in their adult brains.
-Research has identified subtle but important brain changes occurring
among adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), resulting in a
decreased ability in problem solving, verbal and nonverbal retrieval,
visuospatial skills, and working memory.
-The association between antisocial behavior during adolescence and
alcoholism may be explained by abnormalities int he frontal limbic
system, which appears to cause "blunted emotional reactivity".
-Alcohol-induced memory impairments, such as "blackouts", are
particularly common among young drinkers and may be at least in part
due to disrupted neural plasticity in the hippocampus, which is
centrally involved in the formation of autobiographical memories.
- The symposium concluded that many serious adult mental disorders
have their onset during childhood, and are risk factors for heavy
alcohol involvement, especially attention deficit disorder,
schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and bipolar spectrum disorders. The
nature and extent of alcohol's effects on the neurodevelopmental and
clinical aspects of these disorders should be a priority.
More Alcohol Ads Targeted at Youth--"The alcohol industry is not
exactly practicing what it preaches when it comes to targeting
underage drinkers with advertising, according to a report by Center
on Alcohol Marketing and Youth at Georgetown University. About.com
October 7, 2002, see CAMY.org.
Muthen, Bengt O.; Muthen, Linda K.; " The development of heavy
drinking and alcohol-related problems from ages 18 to 37 in a U. S.
national sample," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2000), 81 (2):
290-300. " N=7859 of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
(NLSY). Results: A key finding is that dropping out of high school
has no effect on alcohol-related problems for individuals in the
mid-twenties, but is associated with significantly increased levels
of alcohol-related problems for individuals in their mid thirties, in
contrast, going on to college is associated with lower levels of
heavy drinking when individuals reach their late twenties and their
thirties. Strong gender and ethnicity effects seen in the twenties
diminish when individuals reach their thirties. Conclusions: The
trajectory analysis expands the knowledge of problematic alcohol
development for individuals in their late twenties and thirties. The
increasing detrimental effect of dropping out of high school up to
the age 37 endpoint of the study raises questions about the effects
in later life of dropping out of high school."
NAS Underage Drinking Prevention Study, for information
related to Federal Policy, CSIP Newsletter January 15, 2003. The
committee of experts appointed by the National Academy of Sciences
(NAS) to develop a cost-effective national strategy to prevent
underage drinking held two public meetings during the fall of
2002.
Nelson, T. F; Wechsler, H.; "School spirits: alcohol and collegiate
sports fans", ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS (2003), 28 (1), 1-11. Studies have
addressed alcohol use and related problems among college athletes,
little is known about the drinking patterns of non-athletes who are
sports fans. This study examines the relationship between alcohol use
and interest in collegiate sports on two levels. First, do fans in
college binge drink more and exhibit more negative alcohol-related
outcomes than other students? Second, do colleges with large numbers
of sports fans have higher rates of heavy drinking and accompanying
secondhand effects affecting other students? The responses of 3445
student sports fans were compared to those 8405 students who were not
sports fans. More sports fans drank alcohol, engaged in binge
drinking, had a heavy drinking style and reported alcohol-related
problems than non fans. The percentage of sports fans at a school was
associated with binge drinking rates and the secondhand effects. The
implications for those working with college athletics and for alcohol
prevention personnel are discussed.
Nicklin, Julie L., "Drug and alcohol arrests increased on campuses in 2000," CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION (2002), 48 (21): 32-39. Reports on the increase in the number of drug and alcohol arrests at colleges in the United States in 2000. Details of crimes of associated drug and alcohol abuse, implications of the increased crime rate on campuses, and actions taken by the Education Department. University of Iowa ranked 5th with 127 drug arrests.
O'Malley, Patrick M.; Johnston, Lloyd D.; "Drugs and driving in American high school seniors, 2001-2006", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS (2007), 68 (6):834-42. The aim of this study was to report trends from 2001 to 2006 in the percentage of all high school seniors who drive after using marijuana, other illicit drugs, or alcohol or who are exposed as passengers to such behaviors. A second objective is to examine demographic and psychosocial correlates of these behaviors. The data were obtained from the Monitoring the Future study, in which nationally representative samples of high school seniors have been surveyed annually since 1975. In 2006, 30% of high school seniors reported exposure to a drugged or drinking driver in the past 2 weeks, down from 35% in 2001. Exposure was demonstrated to be widespread as defined by demographic characteristics (population density, region of the country, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and family structure). Individual lifestyle factors (religiosity, grade point average, truancy, frequency of evenings out for fun, and hours of work) showed considerable association with the outcome behaviors. Impaired driving by youth remains a problem needing serious attention despite some progress in recent years.
Pitkanen, Tuuli, Lyyra, Anna-Lisa, Pulkkinen, Lea; "Age of onset of drinking and the use of alcohol in adulthood: a follow-up study from age 8-42 for females and males", ADDICTION (2005), 100: 652-661. Findings: Early onset of drinking was related to the four indicators of the use of alcohol in adulthood both in men and women. The level of adult alcohol use and alcohol problems was significantly higher in men. The risk for heavy drinking was highest in men and women if drinking was started at less than age 16 years. Socio-emotional behavior and school success at age 8 did not predict the age of onset of drinking. Conclusion: Delaying the initiation of drinking from early adolescence to late adolescence is an important goal for prevention efforts. No clear risk group for early initiators of drinking could be identified on the basis of preceding behavior among 8-year-olds.
Reisberg, Leo, "2 years after colleges started calling home, administrators say alcohol policy works", CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCTION (2001), 47 (19): 34-38. The article deals with the effectiveness of parental notification policies of colleges in the United States in reducing binge drinking among college students. Role of parents in regulating student behavior, results of survey on the effectiveness of the regulation, and loophole in the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act.
Rice, J. P.; Neuman, R. J.; Saccone, N. L.; Corbett, J.; Rochberg, N.; Hasselbrock, V.; Bucholz, K. K.; McGuffin, P.; "Age and birth cohort effects on rates of alcohol dependence", ALCOHOLISM CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003), 27 (1): 93-9. In the sample, they observed higher rates of alcoholism in more recently born individuals; analysis of family history information indicated a higher rate of alcoholism in relatives who were deceased; and co-morbid diagnoses of antisocial personality or depression, as well as cigarette smoking were predictors of risk. The family history indicates that alcoholics may die younger, so that a bias is introduced when only living individual are surveyed.
For example, Rice said, "the rate of alcoholism in female relatives born between 1950 and 1959, as well as those born between 1960 and 1979, was about 30%, compared to 4.5% in female relatives born before 1929. In the controls, the rate was 13% in recently born women, compared to 2.3% in women born during the 1930's. These are dramatic differences. A similar effect is seen in men, but not as pronounced."
Rutledge, Patricia C., "21st birthday drinking: extremely extreme", AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (2008), 76 (3): 511-516. "Despite public recognition of the hazards of 21st birthday drinking, there is little information concerning its prevalence, severity, and risk factors. Data from a sample of 2,518 college students suggest that 21st birthday drinking poses an extreme danger: (a) 4 of every 5 participants (83%) reported drinking to celebrate, (b) birthday drinkers indicated high levels of consumption, (c) 12% of birthday drinkers (men and women) reported consuming 21 drinks, and (d) abut half of birthday drinkers exceeded their piror maximum number of drinks. Current problematic alcohol involvement and its typical correlates strongly predicted both the occurrence and severity of 21st birthday drinking. It is imperative that investigators consider a variety of potential interventions to minimize the harm associated with this rite of passage." The authors found that 68% of females and 79% of the males had estimated BACs of 0.08 BAC or higher on their birthday, or over the legal limit for intoxication all 50 states. Almost half of the men (49%) and 35% of the women has estimated BACs of 0.26. The researchers noted that a blood alcohol content level of 0.26 is associated with "potential serious medical outcomes," including disorientation, coma and even death. 36% of student who never drink when they were underage participated in drinking to celebrate their 21st birthday.
Shepherd JP ; Sutherland I ; Newcombe RG; "Relations between alcohol, violence and victimization in adolescence", JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE ( 2006) Aug; 29(4): 539-53. "OBJECTIVES: To determine whether there is a significant relationship between vulnerability to physical violence and alcohol consumption in adolescence independent of a relationship between alcohol consumption and violent behaviour. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS: Cross-sectional study of 4187 adolescents aged 11-16 in a stratified sample of 13 English schools. RESULTS: Fighting decreased with age whereas hitting others and being hit increased. Relationships between fighting, hitting others and vulnerability to being hit and frequency of drinking and drunkenness were all highly significant (p<0.0001), and were evident at all ages. The outcome most strongly related to frequency of drunkenness was hitting others (odds ratio (OR) 6.62), followed by being hit (OR 4.01) and fighting (OR 2.10). Alcohol consumption and drunkenness remained significantly and independently associated with vulnerability to being hit after adjusting for violent behaviour as well as age and sex. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate an association between alcohol and victimization independent of associations of both with physical aggression. Reducing intoxication may reduce victimization without necessarily affecting violent behaviour. Violence reduction should focus as much on preventing alcohol misuse among victims or potential victims as among offenders."
Shope, Jean T., Bingham, C. Raymond; "Drinking-driving as a
component of problem drinking and problem behavior in young adults",
JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2002) 63:24-33. Telephone survey data
(measure of drinking driving, drug-driving, risky driving, problem
drinking, drug use and delinquent behavior) collected from young
adults (N=4230, 53% female) were used in structural equation
modeling. Two models were developed--one for problem driving and one
for problem behavior--each testing the structural associations among
latent variables and testing them as latent indicators of common
second-order variables. The results supported the hypothesis that
drinking-driving (along with problem drinking, drug use and
delinquent behavior) is an indicator of problem behavior in the
general population sample. Also, drinking-driving, drug-driving and
risky driving were demonstrated to be indicators of a common
construct: problem driving. The model fits the data equally well for
both young men and young women. The results have important
implications for research and for interventions to treat or prevent
drinking-driving, especially among young adults.
The Smoking Gun (Report)
The CASA white paper cites more than a dozen scientific studies that
may explain the factors that contribute to the relationship between
smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol. Some of the factors
include:
- Nicotine exposure at any early age may cause neurological changes
which an increase teen vulnerability
- Animal studies have show a "distinct temporal link between nicotine
exposure and alcohol consumption" a progression from cigarette use to
alcohol use
- Nicotine increases dopamine levels in the brain which increases a
propensity for alcohol and the amount of alcohol consumed
- Smoking nicotine increases nicotine receptors, also known as
upregulation, especially in adolescents. Also the research cited
dozens of studies, with both animals and humans, that demonstrate
that nicotine use causes complex changes in the brain that make
adolescents more vulnerable to marijuana, cocaine and cocaine.
Comparing adolescents aged 12-17 who don't smoke, to teens who do
the CASA study found:
--five times more likely to drink
--13 times more likely to use marijuana
Comparing those who started to smoke before age 12 to nonsmokers
the study found:
--more than three times more likely to binge drink
--nearly 15 times more likely to smoke marijuana
--nearly seven times more likely to sue heroin and cocaine
Smoking and mental health disorders
The CASA study found that among teens who smoke cigarettes:
--twice as likely to suffer depression in the past years
--more likely to experience hopelessness, depression and
worthlessness
--more likely to report panic attack and general anxiety
disorders
--more likely to report post-traumatic stress disorder
http://www.casacolumbia.org/ViewProduct.aspx?PRODUCTID=a5ddff98-c331-4cc1-a3ce-cd17c457bb4d
The Toll of Underaged Drinking from the Center For Disease
Control http://camy.org/factsheets/index.php?FactsheetID=7
Truong, K. D.; Stir,. R.; "Alcohol environments and disparities in exposure associated with adolescent drinking in California", AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH (Feb., 2009) 99 (2):264-70. The authors investigated sociodemographic disparities in alcohol environments and their relationship with adolescent drinking. Methods: They geocoded and mapped alcohol license data with ArcMap to construct circular buffers centered at 14,595 households with children that participated in the California Health Interview Survey. They calculated commercial sources of alcohol in each buffer. Multivariate logistic regression differentiated the effects of alcohol sales on adolescents' drinking from their individual, family, and neighborhood characteristics. Results: Alcohol availability, measured by mean and median numbers of licenses, was significantly higher around residences of minority and lower-income families. Binge drinking and driving after drinking among adolescents ages 12 to 17 years was significantly associated with the presence of alcohol retailers within 0.5 miles of home. Simulation of changes in the alcohol environment showed that if alcohol sales were reduced from the mean number of alcohol outlets around the lowest-income quartile of households to that of the highest quartile, prevalence of binge drinking would fall from 6.4% to 5.6% and driving after drinking from 7.9% to 5.9%. Conclusions: Alcohol outlets are concentrated in disadvantage neighborhoods and can contribute to adolescent drinking. To reduce underage drinking, environmental interventions need to curb opportunities for you to obtain alcohol from commercial sources by tightening licensure, enforcing minimum-age drinking laws, or other measures.
Underage Drinking: A Major Public Health
Challenge, Alcohol Alert, April, 2003.
"The immediate and long&endash;term risks associated with adolescent
alcohol use underscore the need for effective prevention and
treatment programs. Studies have revealed genetic, biologic,
developmental, and environmental influences on underage drinking.
Scientists have found that variability is a crucial aspect of alcohol problems across all age groups and this is a key consideration in alcohol research. There is a three&endash; to fourfold between&endash;individual variation in the rate of absorption, distribution, and elimination of alcohol (pharmacokinetics) and a two&endash; to threefold between&endash;individual variation in the sensitivity of the brain to the effects of a given concentration of alcohol (pharmacodynamics). Understanding the underlying causes of this variability, both genetic and nongenetic, should provide insights into underage drinking and binge&endash;drinking patterns.
Through prevention and intervention strategies directed at the individual, family, school, and community, we aim to provide knowledge and change belief systems and social norms to reinforce the message that underage alcohol use is unacceptable. We also aim to enhance young peoples' self-esteem, self&endash;motivation, and identity formation to enable them to take responsibility for their own health by making informed, deliberate, and healthy choices regarding alcohol use.
Various intervention tools have brought about positive behavioral
change with regard to underage drinking. Further studies will follow
cohorts of young people from childhood through the college years, at
different locations and in different settings, to determine whether
these interventions are enduring and broadly applicable. Finding
lasting solutions to such an entrenched problem will not be easy, but
we are confident that diligent research efforts will meet this urgent
challenge."
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa59.htm
"Underage drinking in the United States: a status report, 2004",
(February, 2005), The Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth.
7,000 young people under 16 have their first drink every day (Sept.
2004, SAMHSA)
In May, 2004, the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) released survey data from 2003 showing that the gender gap
among younger drinkers has closed, although other federal surveys
show that the gap widens again by 12th grade. According to the CDC,
more ninth-and 10th-grade girls are currently drinking than ninth-
and 10th-grade boys. Ninth-grade girls are more likely than their
male peers to binge drink as well.
According to MTF, 55.8% of high school seniors reported using
"alcopops" in 2004, a level that is virtually unchanged from 2003.
Among current drinkers, 78.5% of eighth-graders, 71.3% of
10th-graders and 64.8% of 12-graders reported drinking "alcopops" in
the past month.
In November 2004, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) concluded that alcohol abuse and dependence are "developmental disorders".
An analysis published in the November 15, 2004 issue of BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY stated that the onset of alcohol dependence peaks by 18 years of age.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released in September, 2004 a new annual estimate on the number of underage deaths due to excessive alcohol use: 4,
Brain researchers using brain scanning technology, have identified how they believe alcohol use may cause loss of memory and other skills in adolescents.
Utah has lowest use of illicit drugs; Alaska the Highest (SAMHSA from the State Substance Abuse Data from the 2003 NATIONAL SURVEY ON DRUG USE AND HEALTH). Utah has the lowest rate of illicit drug use in the last 30 days as well as the lowest rate for binge drinking. Alaska has the highest rate for illegal drug use, while North Dakota has the highest rate for bingeing on alcohol. Binge alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day in the 30 days prior to the survey. North Dakota had the highest rate, 31.4. Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Massachusetts and Rhode Island also had high rates of binge drinking. Kansas and Iowa and the lowest rate of dependence or abuse, 2.5 percent.
Underage alcohol use: findings from the 2002-2006 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health", June 2008. More than 40% of underage drinkers in the United States get their alcohol free from adults age 21 and a significant percentage of them get it from their own parents or guardians. According to a nationwide survey the the Substance Abuse and mental Health Services Administration(SAMHSA), more than 40% of the estimated 10.8 million underage drinkers in the past month got their alcohol free from adults. The study revealed that 6.4% of those drinkers, ages 12 to 20, were provided free alcohol by their own parents or guardians.
"In far too many instances, parents directly enable their children's underage drinking -- in essence, encouraging them to risk their health and well-being." said Acting Surgeon General Steve K. Galson, MD, MPH, in a new release' "Proper parental guidance alone may not be the complete solution to this devastating public health problem, but it is a critical part."
The SAMHSA survey asked young people, ages 12 to 20, about the nature and scope of their drinking behavior, and for the first time, asked about the social conditions under which they drink. The survey confirms an earlier study, which found that more than 1/3 of middle school students got their alcohol from their own parents or from a friend's parents or guardians.
According to the SAMHSA report these are some of the survey's
significant findings:
- More than half (53.9%) of all people ages 12 to 2o engaged in
underage drinking in their lifetime, ranging from 11% of 12-year-olds
to 85.5% of 20 year-olds.
- An average of 3.5 million people (9.4%), ages 12 to 20, meet the
diagnostic criteria for having an alcohol-use disorder each year.
- About one in five people in this age group (7.2 million people)
have engaged in binge drinking: consuming five or more drinks on at
least one occasion in the past month.
- The vast majority of current underage drinkers (80%) reported being
with two or more people the last time they drank. Those who were with
two or more people consumed an average of 4.9 drinks on that
occasion, compared with 3.1 drinks for those who were with another
person and 2.9 drinks for those who were alone. _ Among youths, ages
12 to 14, the rate of current drinking was higher for females (7.7%)
than males (6.3%) -- about equal for females and males among those
ages 15 to 17 (27.3%, respectively) and lower for females than males
among those ages 18 to 20 (47.9%) vs. 54.4 %).
- More than half (53.4%) of underage current alcohol users were at
someone else's home when they had their last drink, and 30.3% were in
their own home; 9.4% were at a restaurant, bar or club.
- Rate of binge drinking are significantly higher among young people
living with a parent who engaged in binge drinking within the past
year.
More than 5,000 death a year are attributed to underage drinking
in the United States. Parents and guardians of children ages 12 to 20
can have a great influence on their attitudes about drinking and
substance abuse in general. As this study shows, that influence can
be negative or positive.
VanHeusden, Kathleen; Lenthe, Frank J.; Mulder, Cornelis L.; van der Ende, Ian, Van de Mheen, Dike; Mackenbach, Johan P.; Verhulst, Frank C.; " Patterns of association between alcohol consumption and internalizing and externalizing problems in young adults", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS (2008), 69: 49-57. Non drinkers and excessive drinkers differ from low-level drinkers in risk factors for poor mental health, and these factors may contribute to their elevated rates of mental health problems. Interventions that address the experience of negative social exchange may produce both mental health benefits and a reduction of excessive drinking.
Wagenaar, Alexander C.; O'Malley, Patrick M.; LaFond, Colette;
"Lowered legal blood alcohol limits for young drivers: effects on
drinking, driving, and driving-after-drinking behaviors in 30
states," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH (May, 2001), 91 (5):
801-804. This study evaluated the effects on drinking and driving of
lowered allowable blood alcohol concentration limits for drivers
younger than 21 years in 30 U. S. states between 1984 and 1998.
Measures were based on self-reports form a cross-sectional sample of
more than 5000 high school seniors in 30 states surveyed before and
after BAC limits per implemented in their states. Frequency of
driving after any drinking and driving after 5 or more drinks
declined 19% and 23%, respectively. Lower BAC limits did not affect
overall amount of drinking or total number of miles driven.
Conclusions: significant beneficial effects of lowered youth BAC
limits have appeared despite limited publicity and enforcement of new
laws."
Wechsler, Henry, "Binge drinking should we attack the name or the
problem?", CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION (2000), 47 (8): 12-15. Deals
with the existence of binge drinking among students in the United
States. Definition of binge drinking according to a study the Harvard
School of Public Health College Alcohol Study, organizations which
demand for the removal of the term binge from media coverage of
college drinking; binge drinking themes discovered by a study. To one
degree or another, binge drinking affects nearly every college and
university in American. We're dumbfounded that some people in the
field of higher education think the convening to abolish the 'b-word'
will solve the problem. Do they truly believe that calling it by
another name will make it go away?
Comment: the medical research field defines binge drinking,
why aren't some of these higher education people reading the
research?
Weitzman, E. R.; Nelson, T. E; Wechsler, H.; "Taking up binge
drinking in college: the influences of person, social group, and
environment", THE JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH (2003) 32 (1): 26-35.
To identify person, social group, and environmental factors
associated with uptake of binge drinking amount a national sample of
college students. Results: College students who reported that they
were exposed to 'wet" environments were more likely to engage in
binge drinking than were peers without similar exposures. Wet
environments included social, residential, and market surroundings in
which drinking is prevalent and alcohol cheap and easily accessed.
Findings held up in multivariate analyses that included variables
describing person and social group characteristics. Student who
picked up binge drinking in college were also more likely than their
peers to report inflated definitions of binge drinking and more
permissive attitudes about appropriate ages for legal consumption.
Conclusions: Reducing college binge uptake may require efforts to
limit access/availability, control chap prices, and maximize
substance free environments and associations.
Wechsler, Henry, "Study documents secondhand impact of binge
drinking", CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION (2000), 48 (44): 36. Focuses
on the results of the report 'Secondhand Effects of Student alcohol
Use Reported by Neighbors of Colleges: the Role of Alcohol Outlets,"
by the Harvard School of Public Health. Culture of binge drinking
among colleges students, definition of binge drinking for men and
women, focus of the limited practices of marketing alcoholic
beverages suggested by researchers.
William, A. F., "Young driver risk factors: successful and
unsuccessful approaches for dealing with them and an agenda for the
future", PREVENTION (2006), 12 (Supplement 1), 14-18:10.1136. "The
extent to which various interventions to deal with the young driver
crash problem have wooed are discussed, and promising interventions
that should be tried are identified. Traditional forms of drive
licensing and driver education have not worked. Graduated licensing
reduces the problem and existing laws need to be sthrenthened.
Programs involving parents and police have shown some potential to
increase compliance with graduated licensing restrictions. Insurer
discount programs also have potential. In other public health areas,
comprehensive programs have worked better than those based on single
components. There are continuing efforts to develop new driver
education and training programs and methods of delivery that can
combine with graduated licensing and contribute to reductions in the
young driver problem. The most promising intervention strategy is
likely to be a coordinated community based problem in states with
strong graduated licensing laws as a foundation, involving modern
enforcement and education programs featuring parens and police in
combination, with as much input and partnership as possible from the
target group of young drivers."
Wong, Maria M.; Brower, Kirk J.; Fitzgerald, Hiram E.; Zucker,
Robert A.; Sleep problems in early childhood and early onset of
alcohol and other drug use in adolescence", ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM
(April, 2004), 28 (4): 578-587. This study prospectively examines the
relationship between sheep problems and early onset of alcohol use, a
marker of increased risk for later alcohol problems and alcohol use
disorders. Moreover, early childhood sleep problems seem to be a
robust marker for use of drugs other than alcohol. Implications for
the prevention of early onset drug use are discussed.
Wuethrich, Bernice; "Getting stupid," DISCOVER (2001), March :
56-63. New research indicates that teenagers who drink too much may
lose as much as 10 percent of their brainpower--the difference
between passing and failing in school and life. In developing brains
alcohol use over time has been shown to shrink the hippo campus as
shown through MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) tests.
York, James L.; Welte, John, Hirsch, Judith; Hoffman, Joseph H.;
Barnes, Grace; "Association of age of first drink with current
alcohol drinking variables in a national general population sample".
ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004), 28 (9):
1379-1387. Conclusions: Age of first drink may be a useful predictive
variable for some current drinking measures, including predicted peek
blood alcohol levels as well as lifetime alcohol pathology. Further
support was provided for the "convergence" hypothesis that the
drinking habits of women have become more like those of men.
Young, Amy; Grey, Melissa; Abbey, Antonia; Boyd, Carol J.; McCabe, Sean Esteban, "Alcohol-related sexual assault victimization among adolescents: prevalence, characteristics, and correlates", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS (2008), 68: 39-48. A Web-based, self-administered survey was used to collect data on 7th- through 12th grade students (n=1037) in a large Midwest metropolitan area. Results: Findings from the study indicate that alcohol was involved in approximately 12%-20% of the assault cases, depending on age and gender of the respondent. For females, the presence of alcohol during assault differed significantly based on the location at which the assault occurred, ranging from 6% (at the survivor's home) to 29% (at parties or some else's home.) Furthermore, alcohol-related assault among females was more likely to involve physical force than non-alcohol-related assault.
updated 12/29/09