See also: Vision

Underleider, S; Bloch, S. A.; "Perceived effectiveness of drinking-driving countermeasures: an evaluation of MADD," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1988), 49 (2): 191-5. (Findings are legal enforcement most effective compared to prevention and treatment measures.)

**Valaske, M. J.; "A Safe-driving level of blood alcohol," PATHOLOGIST (1985), March: 36-38. (No alcohol is the answer. Further, we need to espouse that to drive under the influence of these drugs in any amount, whether obtained from a bartender, street pusher, or via a physician's prescription, is socially irresponsible. Finally, we need to indicate that those who do so anyway must be willing to accept responsibility for any adverse consequences.)

Veneziano, C.; Veneziano, J,; "Psychosocial characteristics of persons convicted of driving while intoxicated," PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORTS (1992), 70 (3 Pt. 2): 1123-1130. (Psychosocial and sociodemographic characteristics were obtained on a sample of 498 Missouri DWI offenders. The information included problems associated with alcohol use, past treatment, arrest data, stressful life events, depression, and substance abuse. Descriptive results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications.)

Van Berkom, L. C.; " Chemical test evidence in DWI cases: some issues and challenges," ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND DRIVING (1991), 7 (3-4): 229-234. (Overview of issues and challenges made to chemical test evidence in courtrooms.)

Vingilis, E.; Adlaf, E. M.; Blefgen, H.; Bennett, C.; " A Controlled evaluation of the DWI visual detection guide training programs for police officers," 1395-1405. (23 driving cues uses in DWI cases to increase rates of arrest.)

Voas, R. B.; "Drinking and driving prevention in the community: program planning and implementation," ADDICTION (1997), 92 Suppl 2: S201-9. (This paper traces the background of drunk driving enforcement technology and practice against which the programs at the three sites were implemented in California as part of the Community Trials Project.)

Voas, Robert B.; Tippets, A. Scott; Taylor, Eileen P.; "The Illinois .08 law: an evaluation," JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH (2002), 33: 73-80. "The proportion of all drinking drivers in fatal crashes was compared before versus after implementing the .08 law using time-series analysis to evaluate 12 years of fatal crash data for Illinois and five bordering states (includes Iowa, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Indiana, and Missouri). The results showed that the proportion of drinking drivers in fatal crashes decreased by 14% in Illinois and and increased by 3% in bordering states. The proportion of drinking drivers in fatal crashes in Illinois, though increasing since 1995, was sharply reduced after passage of the .08 law in 1997, saving more than 100 lives in 1998 and 1999 than would have without the .08 law.
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Vogel-Sprott, M.; "Acute recovery and tolerance to low doses of alcohol: differences in cognitive and motor skill performance," PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY (1979), 61: 287-291. (Two groups of male social drinkers [10 subjects] were given low doses of alcohol four times and trained on pursuit rotor and decoding tasks and breath alcohol was tested on both the ascending and descending Breath alcohol curve. After peak breath alcohol was reached acute recovery was evident in coding at a falling breath alcohol where PR remained impaired. These differences in impairment between tasks on the two limbs of the BAC curve suggested that conflicting evidence on the sensitivity of various tasks to alcohol effects may be obtained when studies examine task performance without respect to the limb of the BAC curve. Coding and tolerance were affected by repeated exposure. It was suggested that the phenomena of acute recovery and tolerance may be positively correlated, and different for different types of tasks.)

Vogel-Sprott, M.; Alcohol Tolerance and Social Drinking: learning the consequences, New York: Guilford Press, 1992. (P. 177 "Our research demonstrated that the display of symptoms of intoxication and tolerance could be controlled by the consequences of a drinker's behavior under alcohol. Alcohol-tolerant behavior was exhibited in drinking situations where it resulted in a more advantageous consequence that intoxicated behavior. The implication for prevention is that society should hold a drinker responsible for his or her behavior and ensure that the consequences are reliable and balanced so that penalties, or at least no advantage, accrues for the display of socially unacceptable behavior. Our theory suggests that pardoning unacceptable behavior under alcohol fosters the expectation that the behavior is due to the drug. The drinker is thereby excused from responsibility and learns to expect minimal or no adverse consequences for such behavior.")

Vogel-Sprott, M.;: Kartechner, W.; McConnell, D.; "Consequences of behavior influence the effect of alcohol," JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE (1989), 1 (4): 369-79. (Behavioral effects of an acute dose of alcohol intensify while blood alcohol concentrations (BAC) rises, and abate while BAC declines. Elimination processes during this latter phase cannot totally explain this reduction, because the effects typically diminish more rapidly than the declining BAC. More recent research also demonstrates that the behavioral effect at a give rising BAC is greater than that observed at the same BAC on the declining limb of the alcohol curve. Four groups of male social drinkers were tested on a complex psychomotor tasks and then performed it 20 time after drinking a dose of alcohol. Group C received money contingent on the display of non impaired performance. Group I received information, Group R received money randomly, and N received no out come under the drug. A briefer duration of impairment, faster recovery at higher BACs, and less impairment during declining alcohol level was displayed by group C. The findings imply that the learned expectations of some valuable consequence for drug compensatory performance enhances behavioral tolerance to single and repeated doses of alcohol. breath alcohol)

Vogel-Sprott, M., Fillmore, M. T.; "Impairment and recovery under repeated doses of alcohol: effects of response-outcomes," PHARMACOLOGY BIOCHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOR (1993), 45: 59-63. (36 males, 3 repeated doses of alcohol impairment is govern by two processes: response-outcome associations that determine the amount of impairment displayed under a dose and some adaptive process that determines the rate of recovery with time during exposure to a dose.)

**Vogel-Sprott, M.," Is behavioral tolerance learned?" ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH WORLD (1997), 21 (2): 161-9. (Studies conducted on alcoholism suggest that the behavioral tolerance of social drinkers towards alcoholism is developed through repeated exposure. The drinkers perceived expectations of society and the expected consequences of their antisocial actions modify their behavior. The term "tolerance" refers to the reduction in the intensity of the effect of alcohol, or other drugs, over the course of repeated use. These observations accord with the notion that apparent sobriety after drinking or an "ability to handle one's liquor", (i. e. exhibit tolerance to alcohol's behavioral effects) may be a useful pathological diagnostic symptom (American Psychiatric Association 1994). People likely to acquire tolerance to alcohol's behavioral effects in drinking situations where reliable cues, such as liquor bottles, signal alcohol availability. Research indicates that when alcohol is expected and received a social drinker may demonstrate behavioral tolerance while performing one task but not another. Other research suggests that technique commonly referred to as "mental rehearsal" can build tolerance as an alternative to actually performing a task after drinking alcohol. The techniques, often applied to improve motor skills in sports, involves imagining task performance before putting it into practice. Subjects in the cited studies drank repeated doses of alcohol and either mentally rehearsed a task with an imaginary reward for sober performance or actually practiced the task and received a reward for sober performance. After the treatments concluded and all groups performed the tasks after drinking alcohol, both the mental rehearsal and the task-practice groups displayed complete tolerance (i. e., no impairment) under the influence of alcohol.)

Volkow, N.; Wang, G.; Doria, J. J.; "Monitoring the brain's response to alcohol with positron emission tomography," ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH WORLD (1995), 19 (4); 396-300. (Researchers have used PET measurement of blood flow and energy metabolism to identify brain regions affected by alcohol and to investigate mechanisms of alcohol-induced cognitive and behavioral impairment. PET can detect early functional deficits in the brain before structural changes can be detected. Pet students have shown that alcohol withdrawal changes regional brain metabolism in alcoholics in the absence of neurological or psychological impairment. PET has also document gradual recovery of cognitive functions with continued abstinence.)

Wagenaar, A. C.,, et al.; "Effects of beverage alcohol price and tax levels on drinking: a meta-analysis of 1003 estimates from 112 studies." ADDICTION, 15 Jan, 2009. A meta-analysis of 112 studies examined the effects of increases in alcohol pricing or tax level on consumption of alcoholic beverages. The study finds that raising the cost of alcohol effectively reduces drinking across the broad population of drinkers.

Substantial literature over several decades has examined the relationship between alcohol cost and consumption, yet these studies' methodologies and interpretations differ significanly. This study systematically reviews this vast and varied literature. It cumulates evidence across 112 studies based on 1,003 statical estimates, using a multilevel random-effects model to account for study-level variability.

Key findings:
--There is a highly significant inverse relationship between alcohol tax or price measures and indices of sales or consumption of alcohol.
--Alcohol cost affects drinking of all types of alcoholic beverages across the entire population of drinkers from light drinkers to heavy drinkers.

Given the low cost of adjusting alcohol tax policies, the global burden of disease and injury associated with alcohol, and the high fiscal and social costs of alcohol-related problems, this study's noteworthy evidence should encourage public policies that raising the price of alcohol may effectively reduce drinking. Future studies might examine price/tax effects on a range of relevant health and social outcomes.

Wagner, M.; Pieters, J. E.; Pikaar, N. A.; Ockhuizen, T.; "Application of a three-compartment model to study the effects of sex, alcohol dose, and concentration exercise and food consumption on the pharmacokinetics of ethanol in health volunteers," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1991), 26: 329-336.

Wagner, John G.; Wilkinson, Paul K.; Ganes, Derek A; "Estimation of the amount of alcohol ingested from a single blood alcohol concentration," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1990), 25 (4) : 379-384.

**Wall, A.; Hingson, R. E.; McKee, S. A.; "Alcohol outcome expectancies, attitudes toward drinking and the theory of planned behavior," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1998), 59: 409-419.

Waller, P. F.; Hill, E. M.; Maio, R. F.; Blow, F. C.; "Alcohol effects on motor vehicle crash injury", ALCOHOLISM, CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003), 27 (4): 695-703. (Although alcohol is frequently present in injured patients, whether it exacerbates injury and whether tolerance to alcohol changes such a relationship is not clear. Conclusion: alcohol increases injury by 30 percent, but the effects of alcohol level and alcohol tolerance are less clear. Drinking alcohol before a crash more than doubled the risk of dying in an accident. The risk of almost every type of injury went up with the consumption of alcohol.) Note: alcohol is a blood thinner and with it in your system, you may bleed to death.

Waller, P. F.; Steward, J. R.; Hansen, A. R.; Stutts, J. C.; Popkin, C. L.; Rodgeman, E. A.; "The Potentiating effects of alcohol on driver injury," JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (1986), 256 (1): 1461-1466. (Moreover, alcohol-related crashes are more likely to characterized by higher speed, rural location, late-night setting, and lack of safety belt use, all of which can markedly influence the outcome of the crash. The findings of this study, consistent with prior animal research, indicate that the relationship between alcohol and injuries is much more fundamental, that alcohol actually make a person more vulnerable to injury from any give traumatic insult.)

Wang, Gene-Jack; Volkow, Nora D.; Fowler, Joanna S.; Franceschi, Dinko; Wong, Christopher T.; Pappas, Naomi, R.; Netusil, Noelwh, Zhu, Wei, Felder, Christopher, Ma, Yeming; "Alcohol intoxication induces greater reductions in brain metabolism in male than female subjects." ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003), 27 (6): 909-917. (Ten male and female subjects.)

Wang, M. Q.; Taylor-Nicholson, M. E.; Airhinenbuwa, C. O.; Mahoney, B. S.; Fitzhugh, E. C.; Christiana, R.; "Psychomotor and visual performance under the time-course effects of alcohol," PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR SKILLS (1992), 75 (3 pt 2) : 1095-1106.

Ward, R. J.; MacPherson, A. J. S.; Peek, G.; Bailey, M. E. S.; Peters, T. J.; "The "Topping-up" effect: differences between low- and nonalcoholic lager on blood ethanol," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1991), 26 (4): 399-402. (Peek BAC occurred within 60 to 90 min after the last drink on fed 8 male and 8 female subjects.)

Warren, R. G.; Lie,I.; "Visual functions and acute ingestion of alcohol", OPHTHALMIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL OPTICS (1996), 16 (6): 460-466. (22 males subjects, BrAC) Visual acuity and refraction were only significantly affected at the 0.1 percent BrAC level. Contrast sensitivity, stereoacuity and binocular vision were affected at both 0.05 percent and 0.1 percent BrAC concentrations. Only the higher spatial frequencies of contrast sensitivity were affected. These results confirm previous findings on the detrimental effects of alcohol upon oculomotor control, showing a considerable decrease in both positive relative convergence and negative relative convergence.

Watkins, R. L.; Adler, E. V.; "The Effect of food on alcohol absorption and elimination patterns," JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES (1993), 38 (2), 285-291. (6 men, 3 women, breath alcohol and fasted and non fasted.)

Watson, Patricia E.; Watson, Ian D.; Batt, Richard D.; "Prediction of blood alcohol concentrations in human subjects: updating the Widmark equation," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1981), 42 (7): 547-556.

Watson, Patricia E.; "Total body water and blood alcohol levels: updating the fundaments," In: K. E. Crow, R. D. Batt (Eds.); Human metabolism of alcohol, volume I: Pharmacokinetics, medicolegal aspects and general interest; CRC Press (1989), 214p.

Weathermon, A. R.; McCutcheon, J. R.; and Clear breath specimens," ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND DRIVING (1993), 9 (1): 19-25. (Used Dubowski data.)

Wechsler, Henry; and Nelson, Toben F.;" Binge drinking and the American college student : what's five drinks?"; PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS (2001), 15 (4): 287-91. The use of the term binge drinking and the 5/4 (five drinks per occasion for men and 4 drunks per occasion for women per day)measure have helped to advance the understanding of college alcohol use over the past 10 years. This article discusses the importance, relevance, and utility of this measure.

Wedel, M; Pieters, J. E.; Pikaar, N. A.; Ockhuizen, T.: "Application of a three compartment model to a study of the effect of sex, alcohol dose and concentration, exercise and food consumption on the pharmacokinetics of ethanol in healthy volunteers," ALCOHOL AN D ALCOHOLISM (1991) 26 (3): 329-336. (Review of alcohol on the fed and fasted.)

Wells, J. K.; Greene, M. A.; Foss, R. D.; Ferguson, S. A.; Williams, A. F.; "Drinking drivers missed a sobriety checkpoints," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1997), 58: 513-517.

Wells-Parker, E.; Anderson, B. J.; McMillen, D. L.; Landrum, J. W.; "Interactions among DUI offender characteristics and traditional intervention modalities: a long-term recidivism follow-up," BRITISH JOURNAL OF ADDICTION (1989), 84: 381-390. (9 year follow-up study in Mississippi.)

Welling, P. G.; Lyons, L. L.; Elliot, M. S.; and Amidon, G. L.; "Pharmacokinetics of alcohol following single low does to fasted and non fasted subjects," THE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY (1977), April, 199-206. (6 subjects, 1 female, 5 males and blood serum.)

West, R.; Wilding, J; French, D.' Kemp, R.; Irving, A.; "Effect of low and moderate doses of alcohol on driving hazard perception latency and driving speed," ADDICTION (1993), 88: 527-532. (The results support the view that at least part of the excess risk of accident associated with alcohol ingestion is attributable to an increase in the time taken to respond to traffic hazards. Breath)

Weston, J. T.; "Alcohol's impact on man's activities: its role in unnatural death," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PATHOLOGY (1980), 74: 755-758. (74-76 New Mexico with 39% auto drivers involved in fatal motor vehicle crashes.)

Widmark, E. M.P.; 1932, Principles and Applications of Medicolegal Alcohol Determination, translated into English by R. C. Baselt, Department of Pathology, University of California, Davis, 1981, 163 p.

Wilkinson, I. M. S.; Kime, R. ; Purnell, M.; "Alcohol and human eye movement," BRAIN (1974), 97: 785-792. (16 subjects, fasted state, BAC, eye movements.)

Wilkinson, P. K.; "Pharmacokinetics of ethanol: a review," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (1980), 4 (1): 6-21. (Fasting and fed with kinetics of alcohol absorption--Michaelis-Menten kinetics).

Williams, Allan; Farmer, C. M.; JOURNAL OF INJURY PREVENTION(2005), 11 (1). This study looked at fatal motor vehicle crash deaths in the United States by time of day, day of week, month, and season. It was found that on average, motor vehicle crashes in the United States result in more than 100 deaths per day, but there is much day-to-day variability. During 1986-2002 the single day fatality count ranged from a low of 45 to a high of 252. More crash death occur in summer and fall months, than winter and spring, largely due to increased travel. July 4 (Independence Day) has more crash deaths on average than any other day of the year, with a relatively high number of deaths involving alcohol. January 1 (New Year's Day) has more pedestrian crash deaths on average, plus it had the fifth largest number of deaths per day overall, also due to alcohol impairment. On other days the high numbers of deaths re likely due to increases in holiday or recreational travel. It was concluded that every day of the year results in many crash deaths, but certain days sand out as particularly risky. The temporal and geographic spread of crash deaths as well as the view of driving as a routine task, inures the public to this continuing problem. Innovative strategies are needed both to raise awareness and to work toward a solution.

Williams, J. G.; "Experiences with alcohol and ability to discriminate legal intoxication statues: a field study,: ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS (1991), 16: 355-362. (Subjects, 99--79 males, 20 females, were recruited in two bar room settings and administered Breath alcohol tests and questionnaires and asked to estimate their BAC. Errors in estimation were most often in the direction of overestimating intoxication. There was also a sex of subject effect, with males being heavier drinkers and estimating intoxication more poorly than females. Results are discussed in terms of situation and expectancy effects.)

Williams, J. G.; Burroughs, W. J.; Jakelis, J. E. "Knowing when you're drunk: a cluster analysis of cues to intoxication," JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE (1991), 3: 387-393. (100 subjects survey and asked to list 5 cues that use to determine their level of intoxication. The lists were compiled and retained for future analysis.)

Williams, P. M.; "Analytical and physiological specificity issues in breath alcohol analysis," ALCOHOL, DRUGS, AND TRAFFIC SAFETY, (Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety, ICADTSA-T95; http://www.raru.adelaide.edu.au/T95/paper/s5p1.html (Widmarks used in Wales and British Courts. "In most cases the defendant will claim they had consumed, prior to driving, alcohol only in such quantity as to give rise to a reading not more than half the legal limit, which creates an impossible gap to be accounted for by the alleged interferant." The driver's own account of pre-driving consumption which, as one British judge so aptly put it is "so often the subject of dubious testimony".)

Wilson, R. J.; "Convicted impaired drivers and high-risk drivers: how similar are they?", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1992), 53 (4): 335-44. (Replication of Donovan (1980) study. Results suggest some of the deviance attributed to high-risk divers by Donovan may have been exaggerated by confounding with age. Secondly, the heterogeneity within the DWI and high-risk driving populations appears to outweigh their differences.)

Wilson, R. J.; Mann, R. E. (eds.); Drinking and Driving: Advances in Research and Prevention, New York, Guilford Press, 1990, 224p. (UNDERSTANDING THE IMPAIRED DRIVER --Jessor and Jessor a clustering of problem behaviors associated with personality states and traits like risk-taking orientation and distress.)

Wilson, J. R.; "Drinking and driving: in search of solutions to an international problem," ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH WORLD (1993), 17 (3): 212-220.

Wilson, R. J.; "Identifying impaired drivers," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1985), 46 (6): 531-537. ("Results of the survey analyses indicate that, as a group, those who drive impaired are distinguishable from those who drive after drinking moderate amounts of alcohol along a number of dimensions including drinking habits, driving behavior, peer influence and attitudes toward drinking-driving. The tendency to drive while impaired may be just one manifestation of a broader constellation of high-risk or irresponsible behaviors.")

Wilson, J. R.; Nagoshi, C. T.; "One-month repeatability of alcohol metabolism, sensitivity and acute tolerance." JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1987), 48: 437-442. (N=34 CARTA subjects 30 and 60 days after initial testing. Testing done with food and breath alcohol.)

Wilson, J. R.; Erwin, V. G.; "Rate of alcohol metabolism; do not "correct" the B 60 estimate for comparisons among ethic groups," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1983), 44 (6): 1093-1096. (Used Watson's TBW and Widmark's r and B 60 to compute alcohol clearance.)

Wilson, J. R.; Laffan, E.; "Alcohol metabolism, sensitivity, and tolerance: testing for genetic influences," In: H. Begleiter and Benjamin Kissin, eds., The Genetics of Alcoholism, New York, NY, Oxford University Press, c1995. (p.122-135).

Winek, C. L.; Esposito, F. M.; "Blood alcohol concentrations: factors affecting predictions," LEGAL ISSUES IN MEDICINE (1985) : 34-61.

Winek, C. L.; Carfagna, M.; "Comparisons of plasma, serum, and whole blood ethanol concentrations," JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY (1987), 11: 267-68.

Winek, C. L.; Wahba, W. W.; Dowell, J. L.; "Determination of absorption time of ethanol in social drinkers," FORENSIC SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL (1996), 77: 169-77. (Breath ethanol testing in a social setting.)

Winek, C. L.; Louette, J. P.; "Effect of short-term storage conditions on alcohol concentrations in blood from living human subjects," CLINICAL CHEMISTRY (1983), 29 (11): 1959-1960. [The effects of time, temperature and a preservative (sodium fluoride) on ethanol concentrations in stored samples of whole blood from living human subjects. We measured the ethanol in the first, second, seventh, and 14th days of storage, by gas chromatography. Samples were stores at 0-3 degrees C, 22-29 degrees C, with and without preservative. None of these showed sighs of significant gains or losses.]

Winek, C. L.; Murphy, K. L.; "The Rate and kinetic order of ethanol elimination," FORENSIC SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL (1984), 25: 159-168. (Breath, rate of elimination increases with practice.)

Winek, T.; Winek, C. L.; Wahba, W. W.; "The Effect of storage at various temperature on blood alcohol concentration," FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL (1996), 78 (3): 179-84. [It is concluded that a whole blood sample obtained from a living individual and stored in a locker, glove compartment or other environment where the temperatures is elevated, may lose 10-19% of its alcohol content over 35 days of storage. On the other hand, when serum or plasma is exposed to the same environment, no significant change in SAC was observed.]

Wober, C.; Wober-Bingol, C.; Karwautz, A.; Nimmerrichter, A.; Walter, H.; Deeke, L.; "Ataxia of stance in different types of alcohol dependence--a posturographic study," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1998), 33 (4); 393-402.

Wolfgang, L.; "Charting recent progress : advances in alcohol research," ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH WORLD (1997), 21: 4, 277-286.

Wong, Maria M.; Brower, Kirk J.; Fitzgerald, Hiram E.; Zucker, Robert A.; Sleep problems in early childhood and early onset of alcohol and other drug use in adolescence", ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (April, 2004), 28 (4): 578-587. This study prospectively examines the relationship between sheep problems and early onset of alcohol use, a marker of increased risk for later alcohol problems and alcohol use disorders. Moreover, early childhood sleep problems seem to be a robust marker for use of drugs other than alcohol. Implications for the prevention of early onset drug use are discussed.

Woodford, J.; "Variations in blood testing," DWI JOURNAL (1985), :61-76.

Wright, Neil R.; Cameron, Douglas; "The Influence of habitual alcohol intake on breath-alcohol concentrations following prolonged drinking", ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1998), 33 (5): 494-501.

Wuethrich, Bernice; "Getting stupid," DISCOVER (2001), March : 56-63. [New research indicates that teenagers who drink too much may lose as much as 10 percent of their brainpower--the difference between passing and failing in school and life. In developing brains alcohol use over time has been shown to shrink the hippocampus as shown through MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) tests.

Yap, Madeline; Mascourd, D. J.; Starmer, G. A.; Whitfield, J. B.; "Studies on the chronopharmacology of ethanol," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1993), 28 (1): 17-24.

Yanovitsky, Itzhak; "Effect of news coverage on the prevalence of drunk-driving behavior: evidence from a longitudinal study", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2002), 63 (342-351). News coverage of alcohol-related risky behaviors seems to provide a cost-effective way of reducing the prevalence of these practices by attracting institutional attention and prompting related environmental changes. Further interventions may benefit from actively seeking to influence news coverage of risk behaviors.

York, J. L.; Hirsch, J. A.; "Applications of bioelectric impedance methodology and prediction equations to determine the volume of distribution for ethanol," ALCOHOL, 12 (6) : 553-8.

York, James L.; Welte, John, Hirsch, Judith; Hoffman, Joseph H.; Barnes, Grace; "Association of age of first drink with current alcohol drinking variables in a national general population sample". ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004), 28 (9): 1379-1387. Conclusions: Age of first drink may be a useful predictive variable for some current drinking measures, including predicted peek blood alcohol levels as well as lifetime alcohol pathology. Further support was provided for the "convergence" hypothesis that the drinking habits of women have become more like those of men.

York, J. L.; Welte, J. W.; "Gender comparisons of alcohol consumption in alcoholic and nonalcoholic populations," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1994), 55: 743-750. (Total body water and alcohol survey.)

Yu, J,; Wiliford, W. R.; "Alcohol and risk/sensation seeking - specifying a causal model on high-risk driving," JOURNAL OF ADDICTIVE DISEASES (1993), 12 (1): 79-96. (A person who is risk/sensation seeking in general tends to drive at high risk, in particular. Further, while chronological age is s significant predictor of high-risk driving, early experience with alcohol intensified risky driving through its impact on risk/sensation seeking.)

Zack, M,; Vogel-Sprott, M.; "Response outcomes affect the retention of behavioral tolerance to alcohol: information incentive," PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY (1993), 113 (2): 269-73. (24 men, Breath alcohol mean < .08. Despite a monetary incentive to perform well tolerance to alcohol and a compensatory response to placebo were both disrupted by withholding [knowledge of response] KR. The results were interpreted in terms of information about performance conveyed by KR.

Zador, P. L.; "Alcohol-related relative risk of fatal driver injuries in relation to driver age and sex," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1991), 52 (4): 302-310.

Zador, P. L., Krawchuk, S. A., Voas, R. B.; "Alcohol-related relative risk of driver fatalities and driver involvement in fatal crashes in relation to driver age and gender: an update using 1996 data," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2000), 61:387-395. The relative risk of involvement in a fatal vehicle crash increased steadily with increasing driver BAC in every age/gender group among both fatally injured and surviving drivers. Among 16-20 year old male drivers, a BAC increase of 0.02% was estimated to more than double the relative risk of fatal single-vehicle crash injury. At the midpoint of the 0.08%-0.10% BAC range, the relative risk of a fatal single-vehicle crash injury varied b between 11.r (drivers 35 and older and 51.9 (male drivers, 16-20). With only very few exceptions, older drivers had lower risk of being fatally injured in a single-vehicle crash than younger drivers, ad did women compared with men in the same age range. When comparable results largely confirmed existing prior estimates. Conclusions: This is the first study that systematically estimated relative risk for drink-drivers with BACs between 0.08% and 0.10% (these relative risk estimates apply to BAC range midpoints at 0.09%.) The results clearly show that drivers with a BAC under 0.l0% pose highly elevated risk both to themselves and to other road users.

Zakhari, Samir; "Overview: how is alcohol metabolized by the body?", ALCOHOL RESEARCH AND HEALTH (2006), 29 (4). "Alcohol is eliminated from the body by various metabolic mechanisms. The primary enzymes involved are aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALHD), alcohol dehydrogenase (AHD), cytochrome P450 (CYP2E1) and catalase. Variation in the genes for these enzymes have been found to influence alcohol consumption, alcohol-related tissue damage and alcohol dependence. The consequences of alcohol metabolism include oxygen deficits (i.e., hypoxia) in the live; interaction between alcohol metabolism byproducts and other cell components, resulting in the formation of harmful compounds (i.e., reactive oxygen species [ROS] that can damage other cell components; change in the ratio of NADH to NAD (i.e., the cell's redox state); tissue fetal damage, impairment of other metabolic processes; cancer, and medication interactions. Several related to alcohol metabolism require further research."

Zawacki, Tina; Norris, Jeanette; George William H.; Abbey, Antonia; Martell, Joel; Stoner, Susan A.; Davis, Kelly Cue; Buck, Philip O.; Masters, N. Tatiana, McAuslan, Pamela; Beshears, Renee; Parkhill, Michele R.; Clinton-Sherrod, A. Monique; "Explicating alcohol's role in acquaintance sexual assault: complementary perspectives an convergent findings", ALCOHOLISM AND CLINICAL EXPERIENCES IN RESEARCH (2005), 29 (2): 263-269. This article summarizes the proceedings of a symposium presented at the 2004 meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism (RSA) in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Jeanette Norris, found that alcohol consumption and preexisting alcohol expectancies affect women's hypothetical response to a vignette depicting acquaintance sexual aggression. The Norris experiment showed (1) that acute intoxication causes women to respond cognitively and behaviorally to a potential assault in ways that increase the likelihood of being victimized and (2) that this effect is moderated by women's preexisting alcohol expectancies.

Joel Martell, reported that alcohol-induced impairment of executive cognitive functioning mediated the effect of intoxication on men's perceptions of a sexual assault vignette. Antonia Abbey found that the experiences of women whose sexual assault involved intoxication or force were more negative than were the experiences of women's whose sexual assault involved verbal coercion. Martell's Study showed not only that intoxication increases men's self-reported likelihood of committing rape but also that this effect is partially mediated by the alcohol's impairment of executive cognitive functioning capacity.

Tina Zawacki, reported that men who perpetrated sexual assault only in adolescence differed from men who continued perpetration into adulthood in terms of their drinking patterns and attitudes toward women. Zawacki's survey substantiated that unacknowledged perpetrators lurk among normative young adult populations and demonstrated that there are developmental trajectories for their perpetration that involve different patters of alcohol consumption. For instance, young men may drink and encourage a woman's drinking on the basis of alcohol expectancies that subsequently steer attention myopically toward the rape-prone foci as intoxication rises, ensnaring both people in an unfortunate trajectory.

Zeiner, A.; Andress, D.; Stratton, R.; "Time of day effects on peak blood alcohol concentration and clearance rate" (Abstract), ALCOHOLISM AND CLINICAL EXPERIENCES IN RESEARCH (1980), 4 : 233.

Zinatelli, M.; Vogel-Sprott, M.; "Learned tolerance to alcohol; mental rehearsal with imagined consequences," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (1990), 14 (4): 518-521. (Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: mental reversal with imagined consequences (C), mental reversal with no imagined consequences (N), and rest (R). Both experiments confirmed by hypothesis. (C) treatment yielded superior drug-free performance, an a greater tolerance. It was concluded that incorporating an imagined consequence of mental performance enhances the learning of alcohol tolerance and the acquisition of motor skill.)

Zink, P.; Reinhardt, G.; "Course of the blood alcohol-curve during and after consumption of alcohol in large quantities: long time studies on human volunteers. . .In: K. Kuriyama; A. Takada; H Ishii (Eds.) Biomedical and social aspects of alcohol and alcoholism, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., 1988, 892p. (p.623-628).  

updated 07/20/10