P. B., "The Deadly drivers are deadly drunk," CAR AND DRIVER, (1998), 44 (3): 110-112.

Parks, Kathleen, A., Fals-Stewart, William; "The Temporal relationship between college women's alcohol consumption and victimization experiences". ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004); 28 (4): 625-629. College women have a much greater chance of experiencing victimization &endash; both sexual and nonsexual &endash; on the days they drink. Researchers found the odds of experiencing sexual aggression were nine times higher on heavy days and three times higher on nonheavy days of alcohol consumption compared with days of no alcohol consumption. The odds of experiencing sexual aggression were nine times higher on heavy drinking days and three times higher on nonheavy days of alcohol consumption compared with days of no alcohol consumption. What we found was that the risk for experiencing victimization dramatically increased with the consumption of alcohol above the risk that exists when alcohol is not consumed. ". . . .the perpetrator has a choice, they don't have to attack or assault."

Parsons, O. A.; Nixon, S. J.; "Cognitive functioning in sober social drinkers: a review of the research since 1986," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1998), 59: 180-190. (Our conclusions support an alcohol-causal-threshold hypothesis and suggest further studies on numbers of drinks consumed daily by various persons.)

Parrott, Dominic J.; Zeichner, Amos; Stephens, Dana; "Effects of alcohol, personality and provocation on the expression of anger in men: a facial coding analysis", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003), 27 (6): 937-945. (136 male social drinkers) Findings suggest that alcohol intoxication facilitate the experience of anger after provocation and enhances the relationship between state anger and behavioral tendencies to control anger expression.

Parrott, Dominic J., Giancola, Peter R.; "A further examination of the relation between trait anger and alcohol-related aggression: the role of anger control", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004), 28: 6: 855-864,. (164 male social drinkers). "The aim of the present study was t determine whether an individual's tendency to engage in anger control strategies would moderate the relation between trait anger and aggression in intoxicated men. Results supported this hypothesis. A significant negative relationships was found between anger control and shock intensity, indicating that tendencies to not employ anger control strategies were related to higher levels of physical aggression (i.e., shock selections). The most important finding, however, was that trait anger only predicted aggression in intoxicated men who reported low levels of anger control or men who did not receive alcohol. As such, individual differences in anger control seem to play an important role in the perpetration of intoxicated aggression This finding makes intuitive sense, in that an intoxicated individual may certainly become angry when physically provoked, but the manner in which he tends to cope with his anger (i.e., anger control may be more directly linked to the expression of aggression than is his general proneness toward anger (i.e., trait anger)."

Parrott, Dominic J.; Giancola, Peter R.; " The effects of past-year heavy drinking on alcohol-related aggression", JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2006), 67: 122-130. Participants included (52 men and 158 women) all social drinkers between 21 and 35 years of age. Results: Alcohol increased aggression only among highly provoked men who reported a history of heavy episodic drinking. A history of high-frequency drinking did not moderate the alcohol-aggression relation. Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of considering a history of heavy episodic drinking in the prediction of intoxicated aggression.

Passananti, G. Thomas; Wolf, Carol A.; Vessell, Elliot S.; "Reproducibility of individual rates of ethanol metabolism in fasting subjects," CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS (1990), 47 (3) : 389-96.

Pearson, P.; Timney, B.; "Effects of moderate blood alcohol concentrations on spatial and temporal contrast sensitivity," JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (1998), 59:163-173. (breath alcohol)

Perper, J. A., Twerski, A.; Wienand, J. W.; "Tolerance at high blood alcohol concentrations: a study of 110 cases and review of the literature," JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES (1986), 31 (1): 212-21. (Alcoholics.)

*Perrine, M. W.; "Who are the drinking drivers? The spectrum of drinking drivers revisited," ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH WORLD (1990), 14 (1): 26-35.

Peterson, J. I.; Crim, D.; Murdock, J. E.; Crim, M.; "Forensic science ethics: developing an integrated system of support and enforcement," JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES (1989), 34 (3), 749-62.

Peterson, J. I.; Crim, D.; "Symposium: ethical conflicts in the forensic sciences--introduction," JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES (1989), 34 (3): 717-729.

Pfefferbaum, Adolph; Rosenbloom, Margaret; Deshmukh, Anjali; Sullivan, Edith V.; "Sex differences in the effects of alcohol on brain structure," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY (2001): 158: 188-197. (Conclusion: Alcoholic men and women show different brain morphological deficits, relative to same-sex comparison subjects. However, age and alcoholism interact in both sexes, which puts all older alcoholics at particular risk for the negative sequelae of alcoholism.)

Phaosawasdi, K.; Tolin, R.; Mayer, E.; Fisher, R. S.; " Effects of alcohol on the pyloric sphincter," DIGESTIVE DISEASES AND SCIENCES (1979), 24 (12); 934-939. [Old, 12 in sample.]

Pieters, J. E.; Wedel, M.; Schaafsma, G.; "Parameter estimation in a three-compartment model for blood alcohol curves," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1990), 25 (1): 17-24. (12 subjects.)

Pihl, R. O.; Paylan, S. S.; Gentes-Hawn, A.; Hoaken, P. N.; "Alcohol affects executive cognitive function differently on the ascending versus descending limb of the blood alcohol concentration curve", ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003) 27 (5): 773-9. 41 college age male subjects. The blood alcohol curve is a measure of how alcohol is absorbed by the body. During the ascending limb of the curve, blood alcohol levers are rising and people feel stimulated. It is during the this part of the curve that people feel most intoxicated. On the descending limb, blood alcohol levels are going down and people may feel a little down, but generally don't feel like they're drunk. The intoxicated volunteers showed cognitive impairment on both limbs of the blood alcohol curve, but the descending limb group showed even greater deficits, especially in spatial functioning. The results support the conclusion that alcohol negatively affects cognitive performance and has a differential effect on the descending versus the ascending limb of the of the blood alcohol concentration curve. The latter finding may have important ramifications relating to the detrimental consequences of alcohol intoxication.

Pikkar, N. A.; Wedel, M.; Hermus, R. J. J.; "Influence of several factors on blood alcohol concentrations after drinking alcohol," ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM (1986), 23 (4): 289-297. (Food and breath alcohol.)

Pishkin, V.; Lawrence, B. E.; Bourne, L. E.; "Cognitive and electro-physiologic parameters during ascending and descending limbs of blood alcohol curve," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (1983), 7: 76-81. (40 men aged 21-30, and peak breath alcohol in the range of 0.08-0.10. Major findings were: cognitive performance was impaired by alcohol ingestion; autonomic arousal was significantly greater after alcohol than after placebo; number and amplitude of skin response were greater on the ascending than on the descending limb; the anticipated effects of failure on cognitive performance were ameliorated by alcohol; and differential effects of alcohol on the psychophysiological parameters were demonstrated.)

Pitkanen, Tuuli, Lyyra, Anna-Lisa, Pulkkinen, Lea; "Age of onset of drinking and the use of alcohol in adulthood: a follow-up study from age 8-42 for females and males", ADDICTION (2005), 100: 652-661. Findings: Early onset of drinking was related to the four indicators of the use of alcohol in adulthood both in men and women. The level of adult alcohol use and alcohol problems was significantly higher in men. The risk for heavy drinking was highest in men and women if drinking was started at less than age 16 years. Socio-emotional behavior and school success at age 8 did not predict the age of onset of drinking. Conclusion: Delaying the initiation of drinking from early adolescence to late adolescence is an important goal for prevention efforts. No clear risk group for early initiators of drinking could be identified on the basis of preceding behavior among 8-year-olds.

Prescott, Carol A.; Cross, Rebecca J.; Kuhn, Jonathan W.; Horn, John L.; Kendler, Kenneth S.; "Is risk for alcoholism mediated by individual differences in drinking motivations?" ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2004), 28 (1): 29-39. Genetic contributions to variation in risk for alcoholism may be mediated in part by individual differences in motivations related to drinking in social settings. Drinking to mange mood indexes genetic risk for alcoholism but does not appear to act as a direct cause of alcoholism.

Presley, Cheryl A.; Pimentel, Edguardo R.; "The introduction of the heavy and frequent drinker: a proposed classification to increase accuracy of alcohol assessments in postsecondary educational settings". JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2006), 67: 324-331. "The authors found there to be a broad range of problematic drinkers grouped together within the category "heavy drinking." which is defined by a single episode (five or more drinks on one occasion). The seriously problematic drinkers can be differentiated from those less problematic by the inclusion of frequency in the criteria. Comparing heavy drinkers with "heavy and frequent drinkers," we found rate of negative consequences to be almost three times higher for the heavy and frequent drinkers. In addition, the heavy and frequent drinkers account for nearly half of all negative consequences reported by all drinkers. Greater specificity in classification is a necessary component of alcohol research and intervention."

Quindlen, Anna; "The drug that pretends it isn't", NEWSWEEK (04/10/2000), 135 (15): 88p. Discusses the reluctance of people in the United States to refer to alcohol as a drug. The role of alcohol-abuse in accidents, health problems, and crime, and its annual cost to the U. S. economy; The notion that the fight against illicit drugs should be given priority over alcohol-related problems; The inability of some people to drink in moderation; The proposed use of alcohol excise-taxes to combat alcohol abuse; Factors affecting underage drinking in the U. S.

Quinlan, Kyran P.; Brewer, Robert D.; Siegel, Paul; Sleet, David; Mokdad, Ali H.; Shults, Ruth A.; Flowers, Nicole; "Alcohol-impaired driving among U. S. adults, 1993-2002", AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PREVENTATIVE MEDICINE (2005), 28 (4), 346-350. The researchers, all based at the time at the CDC, analyzed telephone surveys with more than 100,000 people in the United States in 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999 and 2002. Respondents, aged 18 or older, were asked about their drinking habits, especially binge drinking. Those who did drink alcohol were asked: "During the past month, how many times have you driven when you've perhaps had too much to drink?" People who reported binge drinking were 13 times more likely to report driving while alcohol impaired. Most binge drinkers reported that they often consume far more than five drinks per binge.

"The increase in alcohol-impaired driving episodes," the authors conclude, "is probably due, at least in part, to the substantial increase in binge drinking episodes… Indeed, prevention efforts in the United States are likely to be of limited success unless they are couple with efforts to also reduce the prevalence of binge drinking. The authors suggest renewed efforts to deter alcohol-impaired driving, such as lowering the legal blood-alcohol levels, prompt suspension of a driver's license for people arrested for AID, sobriety checkpoints, alcohol-ignition interlock programs and sustained public education. They also call for greater efforts to reduce binge drinking.

Quintyn, J. C.; Massy, J.; Quillard, M.; Brasseur, G.; "Effects of low alcohol consumption on visual evoked potential, visual field and visual contrast sensitivity," ACTA OPHTHALMOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA (1999), 77 (1): 23-26. "Alcohol consumption caused no significant difference in performance for these 3 tests. However, at BAL of 0.57g/kg there was a decrease in cerebral function, as show by an increase in the number of mistakes made in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. These results suggest that for a low blood alcohol level, visual performance is less affected by the visual changes that by alteration in brain functions."

Pihl, R. O.; Paylan, S. S.; Gentes-Hawn, A.; Hoaken, P. N.; "Alcohol affects executive cognitive functioning differently on the ascending versus descending limb of the blood alcohol concentration curve", ALCOHOLISM, CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (2003), 27 (5): 773-9. (The intoxicated volunteers showed cognitive impairment on both limbs of the blood alcohol curve, but the descending limb group showed even greater deficits, especially in spatial functioning. Cognitive function deficits can seriously affect behavior, making you more aggressive and argumentative. The essence of behavioral control is soluble in alcohol for many people. The results support the conclusion that alcohol negatively affects cognitive performance and has a differential effect on the descending versus ascending limb of the blood alcohol concentration curve. The latter fining may have important ramifications relating to the detrimental consequences of alcohol intoxication.) 41 college age males.

"Prevention primer : an encyclopedia of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug prevention terms," U. S. Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (1994) : 68-71. Provides an historical overview of prevention and alcohol use in the United States.

Radlow, R., Hurst, P. M.; "Temporal relations between blood alcohol concentration and alcohol effect: an experiment with human subjects," PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY (1985), 85 (3): 260-66. (breath alcohol, 40 fasted subjects.)

Rainey, P.M.; "Relation between serum and whole-blood ethanol concentrations," CLINICAL CHEMISTRY (1993), 39 (11): 2288-2292.

Rakauskas, M. E.; Ward, N. J.; Behavioral effects of driver distraction and alcohol impairment", 496h Annual Meetinf of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Orlando, Florida, September 26-30, 2005.

"Recommendations to reduce injuries to motor vehicle occupants: increasing child safety seat use, increasing safety belt use, and reducing alcohol-impaired driving", Task Force on Community Preventive Services, "American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2001), 21: 4S. Recommendations include 0.08% blood alcohol concentration laws, laws to establish lower BACs for young and inexperienced drives, maintaining the minimum legal drinking ate at 21 years, sobriety checkpoints, train for alcoholic beverage servers and more.

Rehm, C. G.; Nelson, J; MacKenzie, D.; Ross, S. E.; "Failure of the legal system to enforce drunk driving legislation effectively", ANNALS OF EMERGENCY MEDICINE (1993), 22 (8): 1295-7.

Retting, R. A.; Ulmer, R. G.; Williams, A. F. Prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes in the United States. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 31(6):687-694, 1999 (The national prevalence of crashes caused by running a red light was estimated, and the characteristics of such crashes and the drivers involved were identified. It was estimated that approximately 260,000 such collisions, about 750 of them resulting in fatalities, occur annually in the United States. Comparisons of red light-running drivers and drivers in the same crashes who did not run a red light revealed that those who went through the red light were more likely to be under age 30, to have prior moving violations and convictions for driving while intoxicated, to have invalid driver's licenses, and to have been drinking before the crash. Nighttime red light runners were more likely than daytime red light runners to be young, male, and have more deviant characteristics, with 53 percent having high blood alcohol concentrations. Seventy-eight U. S. cities were also ranked on fatal red light-running crashes per 100,000 population; the top 10 were Phoenix (8.11), Mesa (7.08), Memphis (5.45), Tucson (5.11), St. Petersburg (4.95), Dallas (4.89), Fresno (4.89), Birmingham (4.80), Albuquerque (4.77), and Louisville (4.40); the bottom 10 were Akron (0.90), Rochester (0.87), New York City (0.85), Boston (0.73), Arlington, TX (0.68), Cincinnati (0.56), Honolulu (0.45), Columbus, OH (0.31), Pittsburgh (0.28), and Oklahoma City (0.21).

Ridker, P. M.; Vaughan, D. E.; Stampfer, M. J.; Glynn, R. J.; Hennekens, C. H.; "Association of moderate alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of endogenous tissue-type plasminogen activator," Journal of the American Medical Association, (1994), 273 (12): 929-933.

Rimm, D. C.; Sininger, R. A.; Faherty, J. D.: Witley, M. D.; Perl, M. B.; "Balanced placebo investigation of the effects of alcohol vs. alcohol expectancy on simulated driving behavior," ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS (1982), 7 (1), 27-32. (44 male colleges students ages 18-28 and breath alcohol. Principal findings were that alcohol ingestion had a debilitating effect on certain measures of driving behavior (operation of brakes, steering), whereas the believe that one had consumed alcohol had no discernible effects. It was concluded that reckless driving under the influence of alcohol, is at least partly a result of the pharmacological effects of alcohol.)

Rivara, Frederick P.; et. al.; "Mortality attributable to harmful drinking in the United States, 2000*, JOURNAL OF STUDIES ON ALCOHOL (2004), 65: 530-536. An estimated 63,718 deaths were attributable to harmful drinking in the U. S. in 2000. Of these, an estimated 45,988 were in men and 17,730 in women, accounting for 45 of all deaths among men and 1.5% among women. Among men, 47.6% were due to medium and high levels of regular drinking, and 52.4% due to heavy episodic drinking, whereas among women these proportions were 54.2% and 45.8%. Conclusions: Harmful drinking accounts for a substantial number of deaths each year in the United States. Prevention of this underlying cause of mortality must be a public health priority.

Roehrs, T.; Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos, A.;Timms, V; Zorick, F.; Roth, T.; "Sleep extension enhances alertness and the sedating effects of ethanol." PHARMACOLOGY BIOCHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOR (1989), 34 (2): 321-324. (Ethanol reduced sleep latency and divided attention performance and the sleep extension improved both sleep latency and divided attention performance. Sleep extension attenuated the sedating effects of ethanol; sleep latency after extending sleep did not differ between placebo and ethanol.)

*Rohrbaugh, J. W.; Stapleton, J. M.; Parasuraman, R. ; Frowein, H. W.; Adinoff, B.; Varner, J. L.; Zubovic, E. A.; Lane, E. A.; Eckardt, M. J.: Linnoila, M.; "Alcohol intoxication reduces visual sustained attention," PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY (1988), 96: 442-446. (12 male social drinkers, 4 doses over three days, breath alcohol, and light meals. Intoxication lowered the overall level of detection performance, and in addition produced dose-related increases in the rate of performance decrement over time. Analysis of performance data using techniques derived from Signal Detection Theory indicated that the decrements were due specifically to alterations in perceptual sensitivity. Examination of eye movements and blinks indicated that the effects of ethanol were not mediated peripherally. Rather, alcohol appears to have deleterious effects on central processing capacity and the availability of capacity over time. The alcohol-related failure of sustained attention may contribute to increased accident risk in tasks requiring continuous performance.)

Rohrbaugh, J. W.; Stapleton, H. M.; Parasuraman, R. ; Zubovic, E. A.; "Dose related effects of ethanol on visual sustained attention and event-related potentials," ALCOHOL (1987), 4: 293-300. (The effects of acute ethanol intoxication on visual sustained attentions were investigated in 12 fed male social drinkers and breath alcohol. Detection performance deteriorated as a function of both dose and time on task. In addition, the factors of dose and time on task interacted to produce a more rapid performance decrement under the higher doses. The amplitude of N2 also decreased over time on tasks, and P3 amplitude decreased both as a function of dose and time on task. ERP and performance data were interpreted as demonstrating an adverse effect of ethanol on central processing capacity. It is possible that alcohol-related lapses in performance in simple, overlearned tasks are caused by failures in vigilance or sustained attention. The primary effect of ethanol was on the level of performance; whereas performance declined under all doses, there was no statistical indication that ethanol hastened the rate of decline. Low sample.)

Roine, R. P.; Gentry, T.; Lim, R. T.; Baraona, E.; Lieber, C. S.; "Effect of concentrations of ingested ethanol on blood alcohol levels," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (1991), 15 (4): 734-738. (breath alcohol, fed, and rats.)

Roth, T.; Roehrs, T.; "Alcohol-induced sleepiness and memory function,: ALCOHOL HEALTH AND RESEARCH RESEARCH WORLD (1995), 19 (2): 130-8. (A review of the literature. Alcohol induced sleepiness may have memory-impairing effects. Evidence supporting this hypothesis comes from sleep deprivation studies in healthy people, studies of patients with sleep disorders, studies of drugs with sedative effects, and studies of the interaction between alcohol's sedative and performance-disruptive effects.)

Roth, T.; Roehrs, T. A.; Moskowitz, H.; "Issues in drug-related performance impairment," CLINICAL THERAPEUTICS (1992), 14 (5): 654-666; discussion 653. (A review of the literature. Performance impairment associated with alcohol, drugs and medical disorders is of increasing concern to clinicians. Understanding and assessing performance impairment associated with a particular drug or condition is complex and requires careful, critical evaluation of the literature. Awareness of the issues involved enhances the ability of the clinician to assess risks for a given patient and of a give medical therapy. Important study variables are described that should be considered when evaluating literature related to impairment performance. The clinical relevance of performance studies is also discussed.)

Russell, R. M.; Carney, E. A.; Feiock, K.; Garrett, M.; Karwoski, P.; "Acute ethanol administration causes transient impairment of blue-yellow color vision," ALCOHOLISM: CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (1980), 4 (4): 396-399. (14 alcoholic subjects and 12 nonalcoholic subjects, breath and blood analysis. The acute administration of ethanol to alcoholics and normal subjects transiently resulted in poorer color discrimination in all spectra but with significantly more errors in the blue-yellow versus the red-green color range. Thus, ethanol appears to act as a toxin to inner retinal layers, which could account for the higher incidence of tritanopia found among alcoholics. Damage to the cell layer or optic nerve mainly results in a reduction of red-green color sense.)

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updated 07/20/10